D)   Passages from Vitruvius' Architectura.

Foreword

The three oldest Craft records of the Masonic fraternity, as well as all the historical information I have provided for their elucidation, teach us: that Masonry, or Freemasonry, consisted partly of architecture, partly of purely human art of living, which had been allegorized by means of architectural objects and illustrated by symbols.   Architecture was practiced in the Middle Ages with a high understanding and admirable skill, according to the laws of the art of the sublimely beautiful, commonly called Gothic Style; and since the knowledge which belongs to the execution of such magnificent works of art ^a) can scarcely be preserved in memory alone, so it can be presumed that the architects had books of art even at that time, which could have been preserved also in their colleges never interrupted since Roman times, especially in the Greek Empire, and were kept and copied in the Western monasteries, with which the architects were in intimate connection.   Among these art books may well have been Greek ones, still existing from older time, or newly made during the peak of the Greek civilization.   But the York Constitution proves that, in addition to the Elements of Euclid, also the work of Vitruvius, was the only book in the hands of the Masons of the Middle Ages, (p. 66, and p. 81 f.).   =74=

a)   It is an erroneous prejudice [to think] that our present-day builders could not build such edifices.   Our brother Chr. Wren has already refuted this with deed, both by the construction of buildings of this style, and especially by the fact that he himself elevated this style by adding arches to the otherwise conic sections (whose construction he described scientifically), since the architects of the Middle Ages seem to have applied to their arches only the circle.   Euclid and Vitruvius, the teachers of the architects of the Middle Ages, also teach only the circle.   The work which continued at the dome at Milan in the last century is by no means inferior to the older one, as my own contemplation has taught me.

Architecture is apt to make man versatile, especially when the artists, established in convivial associations among themselves, have their home only where they build, and interact with the most educated classes in the most varied contingencies, as this was generally the case, especially during the Middle Ages. — That already among the Greeks and Romans could be respected only those builders, who combined virtue and righteousness and noble manners with scientific and artistic education, is proved by Plato's Politicus, and by Vitruvius' observations in the following passages of his work, which are in tune with our three oldest Craft documents.   Accordingly, the societies of builders throughout the Middle Ages were perhaps the only healthy and receptive class of people upon which the noble seed of the pure human doctrine and art, derived from the innermost nature of man, handed down from the past and saved and cultivated by the spirit of Christianity, could be planted with success.   The builders' teachers, if they wished to find input, had to draw on this higher wisdom and art with their own way of thinking, constitution, professional activity, and artistic language.   (See II, pp. 561 ff.) And the moral teachings contained in their best books of the profession were especially suited to the education and the good conduct of a builder.

Anyone who has familiarized himself well with the three Craft documents imparted here, by comparing the following passages of Vitruvius, will become apparent to him how Vitruvius' doctrines have been laid down with the usages and symbols by those who designed the most ancient ritual of admission to Masonry, which have been largely preserved in our second Craft document; because in this document we can single out in all of Vitruvius' sentences that which is doctrine, not ceremonial usages, which has been laid out, not without wisdom, as a kernel around the higher doctrine of the Christian clerics.

This connection between the writings of Vitruvius and the teachings of the Craft, and with the oldest Ritual of Admission of the medieval Masons, was first noted by Brother Schneider, whose scholarly and industrious research gave the Fraternity much information about its history; =75= and would owe him even more, if his death did not thwart the hope of seeing his numerous Masonic works completed or printed.   Guided by Anderson's history in the Book of Constitutions, and even by the York Constitution, Bro. Schneider established the essential element of Masonic history, until then not even recognized by Bro. Feßler, contained in the building guilds of the Greeks and Romans, in their institutions and Guild teachings; which then made it possible for me to work out to the last detail through very tedious research of the original sources.

This essential coincidence of Vitruvius with the teachings of the Craft contained in the oldest ritual of admission is all the more pleasing, since it proves that in architecture, even in completely different circumstances, is present an inherent disposition peculiar to it, to train its artists into a social constitution and disposition concordant with pure humaneness and sociability, which is also quintessential to Masonry; — and at the same time is hereby confirmed how appropriately the purely-human-minded Culdean clergymen chose to make the companies of builders to partakers of their higher insights and purely-human aspirations.

In classical antiquity the constitution of the builders, as well as in all science and art in general, was modeled on the family constitution (see here IV, p. 176 f.; formed around every great artist by students from the close circle of his relatives and friends he personally loved and respected.   But in the Middle Ages, besides one's-own personal bond, united them all the common love and zeal for their art, but especially the unifying spirit of pure Christianity uniting in universal love all men as brothers (caritas, αγαπη; see here I, 28 f.; 149 , note 31; II, p. 194, Q. 131; III, pp. 217, 237, 240; IV, p. 23) prepared them for it [love] by the deforestation of lands and the construction of sacred buildings outside a worthy place.   In their wanderings they needed a social constitution and their own jurisdiction, which was bestowed and secured by the head of the church (IV, p. 216 f.) and art-loving princes (III, 14, 270, 294). =76= *

Finally, in comparing the general teachings of Vitruvius with the teachings of the Masonic documents, it is never to be overlooked: that Vitruvius certainly speaks of nothing secret, of any secret moral art; furthermore, that he does not demand from the builders the deliberate refinement of humanity, but only of one's own universal human education, virtue, righteousness, and noble inclination.   And what constitutes the innermost essence of Freemasonry: to live in the spirit of humanity, incessant labor, to train oneself to become a human being as an inner member of mankind, and to co-operate socially in the all-round, purely-human upbringing and education of all mankind, — it is not to be found in Vitruvius at all, and I do not know whether it would generally be originally found openly and unfolded somewhere in the Indian, Chinese, Persian, Egyptian, Hebraic, Phoenician, Hellenic, and Roman antiquities, to this day; although the most accurate research possible, using the best sources among all the peoples just mentioned, has revealed to me some of the rational intuitions and germs of that primitive doctrine of humanity, of human life, and of the human Covenant, ^a) which in my opinion could be gained only at the height of the present human life in the body of science as a subordinate branch of this structural whole, and from the ever-rising human life of future centuries awaits an ever purer, higher, richer, and more beautiful education, and social living according to it.

a)   Meanwhile, has to be presumed, how darken and disturbed by fundamental errors may have been these premonitions, is the caste system still existing today among the Indians and Parsis, among the Jews, of their behavior towards all the other peoples, called by them Goym, of the slavery among the Romans and Greeks generally introduced by them, and of their behavior towards all the other peoples they called Barbarians.   *

D)   Stellen aus des Vitruvius Baukunst.

Vorerinnerung

Die drei ältesten Kunsturkunden der Freimaurerbrüderschaft, sowie alle geschichtlichen Kundnisse, die ich zu Erläuterung derselben beigebracht habe, lehren uns: daß die Masonei, oder Freimaurerei, theils aus der Baukunst, theils aus der reinmenschlichen Lebenkunst bestand, welche mittelst baukunstlicher Gegenstände versinnbildet und lehrzeichenlich (symbolisch) dargestellt wurde.   Die Baukunst wurde im Mittelalter nach den eignen Kunstgesetzen des erhaben schönen, gewöhnlich gothisch genannten Stiles, mit hohem Verstand und bewunderwürdigem Fleiße geübt; und da die Kenntnisse, welche zu Ausführung so großartiger Kunstwerke ^a) gehören, schwerlich allein im Gedächtnisse aufbewahrt werden können, so läßt sich vermuthen, daß die Baukünstler auch damals Kunstbücher gehabt, welche sich auch in ihren seit der Römer Zeiten nie unterbrochnen Collegien, besonders im griechischen Kaiserreiche, erhalten haben konnten, auch in den abendlandlichen Klöstern, mit denen die Baukünstler in inniger Verbindung standen, aufbewahrt und abgeschrieben wurden.   Unter diesen Kunstbüchern mögen auch wohl griechische, in der Blüthe des griechischen Kaiserreiches noch aus älterer Zeit vorhandne, oder neuverfertigte, gewesen sein. Daß aber nebst den Elementen des Euclides, auch des Vitruvius für uns einsiges Werk in den Händen der Masonen des Mittelalters war, beweiset die Yorker Constitution (hier S. 66, und S. 81 f.). =74=

a)   Daß unsere heutigen Künstler solche Gebäude nicht auch erbauen könnten, ist ein irriges Vorurtheil.   Schon unser Bruder Chr. Wren hat dasselbe mit der That widerlegt, sowohl durch Aufführung von Gebäuden dieses Stiles, als insbesondere dadurch, daß er diesen Stil selbst höhergebildet, indem er Bogen der übrigen Kegelschnitte (deren Construction er wissenschaftlich beschrieben) angebracht, da die Baukünstler des Mittelalters zu ihren Bogen nur die Kreislinie angewandt zu haben scheinen.   Euclides und Vitruvius, die Lehrer der Baukünstler im Mittelalter, lehren ebenfalls blos die Kreislinie. — Die am Dome zu Mailand im letzten Jahrzehende fortgesetzte Arbeit stehet der alten ebenfalls keinesweges nach, wie mir meine eigne Beschauung gelehrt hat.

Die Baukunst ist geeignet, den Menschen vielseitig zu bilden, zumal wenn die Künstler, in geselligem Vereine in sich selbst feststehend, ihre Heimath nur da haben, wo sie bauen, und mit den gebildetsten Ständen in die vielseitigsten Berührungen kommen, wie Dieses besonders während des Mittelalters allgemein der Fall war. — Daß schon bei den Griechen und Römern nur diejenigen Baukünstler geachtet werden konnten, welche mit wissenschaftlicher und künstlerischer Bildung auch Tugend und Rechtschaffenheit und ein edles Betragen verbanden, wird durch Platon's Politicus, und durch des Vitruvius Äußerungen in den hier folgenden Stellen seines Werkes, die in Einstimmung mit unsern drei ältesten Kunsturkunden stehen, erwiesen.   So waren demnach die Gesellschaften der Baukünstler im ganzen Mittelalter vielleicht der einsige gesunde und empfängliche Stamm, auf welchen das edle Reis der aus der innersten Natur des Menschen geschöpften, aus der Vorwelt überlieferten, und durch den Geist des Christenthumes geretteten und gepflegten, reinmenschlichen Lehre und Kunst mit Erfolg gepflanzt werden konnte.   Die Lehrer der Bauleute mußten, wollten sie Eingang finden, diese höhere Weisheit und Kunst an die denselben eigne Denkweise, Verfassung, Berufthätigkeit und Kunstsprache anknüpfen. (Vergl. II, S. 561 ff.!)   Und hiezu eigneten sich vorzüglich die in ihren besten Kunstbüchern enthaltenen sittlichen Lehren über die Bildung und das Wohlverhalten eines Baukünstlers.

Wer nun die drei mitgetheilten Kunsturkunden sich wohl vertraut gemacht hat, Dem wird es bei Vergleichung der hier folgenden Stellen des Vitruvius einleuchten, wie die Lehren desselben von Denen zum Grunde gelegt worden sind, welche die in unsrer zweiten Kunsturkunde großentheils erhaltene älteste Aufnahmehandlung zum Mason mit ihren Gebraüchen und Lehrzeichen entwarfen; denn man kann in dieser unsrer Urkunde bei Allem, was Lehre, nicht Feierbrauch (Ceremonie), ist, des Vitruvius Sätze wie einen Kern aussondern, um welchen herum die höhere Lehre der christlichen Geistlichen, nicht ohne Weisheit, angelegt worden ist.

Diesen Zusammenhang der Schrift des Vitruvius mit der Kunstlehre, und dem ältesten Aufnahmegebrauchthume der mittelalterlichen Masonen hat zuerst Bruder Schneider bemerkt, dessen gelehrten und fleißigen Forschungen die Brüderschaft mehre Aufschlüsse über ihre =75= Geschichte verdankt, und noch Mehres verdanken würde, wenn sein Tod nicht die Hofnung, seine zahlreichen masonischen Arbeiten vollendet oder gedruckt zu sehen, vereitelt hätte.   Durch Anderson's Geschichte im Constitutionenbuche, und die Yorker Constitution selbst, angeleitet, stellte Br. Schneider das bisdahin, selbst vom Br. Feßler nicht erkannte, wesenliche Element der masonischen Geschichte wieder her, das in den Bauzünften der Griechen und Römer, in deren Einrichtungen und Zunftlehren, enthalten ist; welches dann auszuführen und durchzugestalten mir durch sehr mühsame Durchforschung der Urquellen möglich wurde.

Diese wesenliche Übereinstimmung des Vitruvius mit der im ältesten Aufnahmegebrauchthume enthaltenen Kunstlehre ist um so erfreulicher, als sie erweist, daß der Baukunst auch, bei ganz verschiedenen aüßeren Verhältnissen, eine ihr eigenwesenliche Anlage inwohnt, ihren Künstlern eine der reinen Menschlichkeit und Geselligkeit einstimmige gesellschaftliche Verfassung und Gesinnung anzubilden, welche auch der Masonei erstwesenlich ist; — und als zugleich hierdurch bestätiget wird, wie zweckmäßig die reinmenschlich gesinneten culdeischen Geistlichen wählten, als sie die Gesellschaften der Bauleute zu Mitgenossen ihrer höheren Einsichten und reinmenschlichen Bestrebungen machten.

Die Verfassung der Baukünstler war im classischen Alterthume, wie auch die aller Wissenschaft und Kunst überhaupt, der Familienverfassung nachgestaltet (s. hier IV, S. 176 f.); um jeden großen Künstler bildeten sich von ihm persönlich geliebte und geachtete Schüler aus dem nahen Kreise seiner Verwandten und Freunde.   Im Mittelalter aber vereinigte außer diesem selbeigenleblichen (persönlichen) Bande sie Alle die gemeinsame Liebe und der gesellige Eifer für ihre Kunst, vorzüglich aber der alle Menschen als Brüder in allgemeiner Liebe (caritas, αγαπη; s. hier I, 28 f., 149, n. 31; II, 194, Fr. 131. III, 217, 237, 240; IV, 23.) vereinigende Geist des reinen Christenthumes; dem sie durch Entwilderung der Länder und Errichtung heiliger Gebäude eine würdige aüßere Stätte bereiteten.   Bei ihren Wanderungen bedurften sie einer geselligen Verfassung und eigner Gerichtbarkeit, welche ihnen das Oberhaupt der Kirche (IV, S. 216 f. ;) und kunstliebende Fürsten (III, 14, 270, 294) verliehen und sicherten. =76=

Endlich ist bei Vergleichung der allgemeinen Lehren des Vitruvius mit den Lehren der masonischen Urkunden nie ans der Acht zu lassen: daß Vitruvius durchaus von nichts Geheimen, von keiner geheimen moralischen Kunst, spricht; ferner, daß er nicht von den Baukünstlern absichtliche Veredlung der Menschheit fordert, sondern nur ihre eigne allgemein-menschliche Bildung, Tugend, Rechtschaffenheit und Edelsinn.   Das also, was die innerste Wesenheit der Freimaurerei ausmacht: Leben im Geiste der Menschheit, unablässige Arbeit, sich selbst zum Menschen als inneres Glied der Menschheit zu erziehen und in geselliger Vereinigung zur allseitigen, reinmenschlichen Erziehung und Bildung der ganzen Menschheit mitzuwirken, — Dieß findet sich gar nicht bei Vitruvius, und ich weiß nicht, ob es überhaupt irgendwo im indischen, sinischen, persischen, egyptischen, ebraischen, phönizischen, hellenischen und römischen Alterthume urgeschaut und entfaltet offenbar am Tage liegen möchte; obgleich möglichst genaue Forschung, in Benutzung der besten Quellen bei allen soeben genannten Völkern mir einselne Vernunftahnungen und Keime jener erstwesenlichen Lehre von der Menschheit, dem Menschtleitleben und dem Menschheitbunde entdeckt hat, ^a) welche erst auf der Höhe des heutigen Menschheitlebens im Gliedbaue der Wissenschaft als ein diesem untergeordnetes gliedbauliches Theilganze durch mich gewonnen werden konnte, und die von dem stetig sich erhebenden Menscheitleben künftiger Jahrhunderte eine immer reinere, höhere, reichere und schönere Ausbildung, und gesellschaftliche Darlebung, erwartet.

a)   Wie getrübt indessen, und von Grundirrthümern gestört diese Ahnungen gewesen sein mögen, ist bei den Indern und Parsen aus dem noch heute bestehenden Kastenwesen, bei den Ebräern aus dem Verhalten gegen alle anderen, Goim genannten, Völker, bei den Römern und Griechen aus der bei ihnen allgemein eingeführten Sklaverei, und aus dem Verhalten derselben gegen alle andere Völker, die sie Barbaren nannten, zu vermuthen.

a)   Marcus Vitruvius Pollio

De Architectura.

First Chapter of the First Book.

Architecture and Characteristics of an Architect.

[See the original Latin text starting at page =77=]

[This translation is based on the Rode's version.]

Architecture is a science adorned with a great deal of knowledge and multifaceted erudition, which includes in itself the works of all other arts with elegant determinations.   It consists of practice and theory.   Its pursuance is a mechanical skill acquired through reflection and constant practice, to carry out the construction of a building from materials specified in the submitted design.   The theory, however, is the skill to illustrate and explain the particular buildings with insight and according to the principles of good proportion.   Therefore, those builders, who, without learned knowledge, =79= strove only for mechanical skill, never gained fame with their works; but those who relied only upon theory and their learned knowledge, in turn, seem to have [mis]taken the shade for the body.   But those who thoroughly learned both, and pursued their purpose like in full armor [well equipped], have reached that purpose all the more with honor.   Because, as well as in all things, the following two parts are understood especially in architecture: what is indicated, and what is revealed.   The thing that is being discussed is indicated, and this reveals the explanation given according to the principles of art.   Now, it seems to me that, in both cases, he who gives himself out for [poses as] a building artist must be trained.   Therefore, he does not have to possess only natural gifts, but also thirst for knowledge; because neither genius without scientific education, nor scientific education without genius, can make a perfect artist.   He must be accomplished in letters [grammar and rhethorics], learned in drawing, knowledgeable in geometry, not ignorant of optics, be taught in arithmetic; he must know many histories that philosophers have diligently heard, understand music, have knowledge about medicine, be well acquainted with jurisprudence, and with astronomy, including having become familiar with the heavenly motion.   My reasons for all this being necessary are the following. — A builder must be accomplished in Letters in order to aid his memory in recording noteworthy things; he needs to be accomplished in Drawing, however, in order to be able to present the desired building plans with ease.   Geometry affords many advantages to architecture; in the first place, it teaches the use of the straightedge and of the compasses, which makes the floor plans of the buildings most easy to draw; and secondly, the use of the square, the level and the plumb rule.   By means of Optics, one gives the proper light to the building from the specific parts of the sky.   Arithmetic calculates the construction costs: the ratios of the dimensions are determined, and difficult conditions are detected according to geometric principles and methods.   But the architect must be conversant in the Histories because the architects often apply many ornaments, of which they must be able to give a thorough account, when asked by anyone why they have applied them.   For example, if someone puts marble female statues fully clothed in a building, =81= which are called Caryatids, instead of pillars, and places ornamental rafter end and cornices over them, he has to give to the questioner the following account of them.   The city of Caria, in the Peloponnesian Region, made common cause [alliance] with the Persians against Greece: when the Greeks were freed from the war by the defeat of the Persians, they unanimously declared war on the Caryatids, conquered and destroyed the city, and murdered the men of the city, but led the women into slavery and did not permit the clothing and jewelry of the housewives to be taken off, so that not only would they be conducted in triumph once, but, to eternal memory, would atone for their city in the deepest curse.   Therefore, the builders of that time used them [their effigies] as load-bearing statues on public buildings; so that the exemplary punishment of the traitorous Caryatids would also be known to their descendants.   In like manner, when the Lacedaemonians, led by Pausanias' son, Cleombrotus, defeated a countless army of the Persians with a small squad and performed a magnificent triumph with the spoils they had made, they built from this loot the Persian Hall so praiseworthy to the citizens, as a sign of victory for posterity, and supported its roof with statues of captive barbarians in their strange costume, to punish their pride by this insult: to make the enemies tremble before their bravery, but to inspire the citizens with this example of glory, so they may be always ready and desirous to defend freedom. Since then, many Persian statues supporting architraves and cornices have been added, thereby increasing the pleasant variety of the buildings.   There are several such occurrence, which may not be unknown to the builder.

But Philosophy perfects the builder to a noble mind and way of thinking; that he is not proud and presumptuous, but modest, reasonable, loyal and righteous, and most of all that he is not greedy; because without faithfulness and integrity no work can be done: that he is not covetous, and seeks not to accept gifts [bribes]; but steadfastly asserts his dignity, and keeps a good name.   Because that is the way philosophy demands. =83= Moreover, philosophy deals with the nature of things, which in Greek is called Physiology; this must be studied with utmost diligence, because it comprises many and various physical investigations: as for example with the aqueducts; one now leads the water downwards, or in a roundabout way, or pushes it from a level surface upwards: always one or another kind of gas is generated in the aqueduct, whose interference no one can prevent, because it is not from philosophy that the principles of the nature of things are known.   Nor will anyone be able to read and understand the books of Ctesibius or Archimedes, or others who have written textbooks on these matters, who have not been previously taught by philosophers.   But he must know Music, so that the prescribed and mathematical ratio [wavelength] ^a) is well known to him; and he can adjust the proper tension of crossbows, catapults and scorpions.   Because in the head [of the weapon] are located on the left and on the right the adjustment holes, whereby, by means of winches, or reel and lever, the tendons or ropes, which may be either wedged or tethered, are stretched out by rotation, until they give to the ear of the artist particular identical notes; because the arms, clamped in these tensed ropes, have to snap back exactly equally at the time of firing, if the shot is to find the target; but if they are not in tune, then the shot arrow will also deviate from the straight direction.   Also the brass vases in the theaters, which the Greeks call ηχεια — sound vessels, ^b)) — and which are placed in cubicles under the steps according to mathematical ratios, are arranged according to the difference of the notes, according to the consonance: dividing the scale into fourths, fifths, and octaves; so that the voice resounding on stage, spreading around and touching the coordinated sound vessels, becomes amplified, brighter, and more pleasing to the ears of the spectators.

a)   Vitruvius deals with this in detail in the 4th Chapter of the fifth book.   See there Rode's comment.

b)   These are iron or earthen vases, of which Vitr. (Book 5, Chapter. V.), and Rode speak at length of(in the notes).

Indeed, also no one can make water organs and other similar instruments without [knowing the] theory of music.   He must have [knowledge of] the science of Medicine to judge whether the climate, whether air and water, are healthy or unhealthy; for without proper consideration being given, is not possible to make healthy dwellings.   He must be knowledgeable of the Legislation insofar as it is necessary for the erection of communal walls, =85= likewise for the installation of the eaves, the sewers and the windows, likewise required for the discharge of water and other such things; so that, before he begins a building, he should exercise all caution, so that after his completion the family fathers [owners] should not be left with lawsuits; and thus, when the contract is drawn up, both the one who hires out the construction of the building and the one who undertakes it, can prudently ensure themselves; because if only the contract was drawn up with insight, then both can part without any vexation and damage.   Astronomy finally teaches him where morning, evening, noon, and midnight are; but the knowledge of the heavens, the equinoxes, the solstices, and the course of the stars, without whose knowledge no one can conceive the theory of clocks.

Now, since architecture is so richly adorned with so many and so varied kinds of knowledge; so, I believe that no one can rightly pretend suddenly to be an architect, but that, in order to reach the highest summit of architecture, one must rise step by step, from tender childhood, in the acquisition of this varied knowledge, and must have grown up familiar in these very different arts and sciences.

But perhaps inexperienced persons will wonder how it is possible for a human being's mind and memory be sufficient to grasp such a great amount of knowledge.   But if they consider that all sciences are connected and correlate with each other, they will easily realize that this is possible.   Because an encyclopedic whole (all-round) of the sciences is like a body that consists of all its members.   If one is taught at a tender age in the most varied sciences and arts, one notices the similarity and interrelation of all sciences, and therefore understands everything much more easily.   That is why Pythius, one of the ancient architects who built the temple of Minerva at Priene with so much fame, — claims in his writings: An architect must be accomplished more in all the arts and sciences than those who, in one single discipline have, by persistent diligence, brought it to the highest excellence.   However, this is contrary to the nature of things. =87= Because an architect does not need and cannot be an expert in Grammar, like Aristarchus, a musician, like Aristoxenus, a painter, like Apelles, a sculptor, like Myron or Polykleitos, a doctor, like Hippocrates: but it's enough, if he only in all these, as well as in the other arts and sciences, is not completely inexperienced, without excelling in every one of them.
Because with such a great variety of subjects, it is not possible to attain what is most refined and nobler in each; since it is scarcely within man's power to understand and retain the theory of them all.   Moreover, the architects cannot by themselves achieve virtuosity in all individual things, but even those who limit themselves exclusively to the single arts cannot all at the same time bear the first prize of it.   Now, if not all, but only a few individual artists have achieved everlasting fame in individual dexterities; how can a builder, who must be experienced in several arts at the same time, bring it [each individual art] to an error-free point, which is certain already no small thing, but also to surpass all artists who, with constant diligence, have dedicated themselves exclusively to single skills?
Pythius seems to me to have also erred in this regard by disregarding the fact that every art consists of two parts, practice and theory.   The one is therefore inherent to those who are particularly interested in practicing this art, namely the exercise of it; but the other is common to all scientists, namely, the theory.   Thus, physicians and musicians speak of the rhythm of the veins and of the motion of feet; but if a wound is to be healed, or a sick person is to be taken out of danger, then no musician will be called in, but this will be a peculiar business of the physician.   By contrast, it is not the doctor but the musician, by whom instruments are played if the ears are to be pleasantly entertained by music.  In like manner also, both the astronomers and the musicians will speak of the interaction of the stars and of consonances (musical harmonies), in triangles and squares, ^a) in fourth and fifth; and with them the Geometer of visual art, which the Greeks call their Opticians; and of many, indeed of all things, that all the sciences in general have in common with each other in the theory. =89=

a)   From a passage of an ancient, unnamed interpreter of Ptolemy, I conclude that the ancient mathematicians compared the internal angles of the regular triangle, quadrilateral, and hexagon inscribed in the center of the circle, among themselves, and with the basic musical ratios.   It is indeed the ratio of the angle of the triangle with that of the hexagon = 120 ° to 60 ° = 2 to 1, that is, in the ratio of the octave; furthermore the angle of the quadrangle to that of Square = 90 ° to 60 ° = 3 to 2, in proportion of the fifth note; finally the angle of the triangle to that of the quadrangle = 120 ° to 90 ° = 4 to 3, in the ratio of the fourth note. — Herein belongs a fallacy of Pliny (L. II, c. 20): "Sometimes," he says, "Pythagoras calls, in the manner of the musicians, the distance of the earth to the moon one tone, of the moon to Mercury ½ tone, of Mercury to Venus ½ tone, of Venus to the Sun 1½, of the Sun to Mars 1, Mars to Jupiter ½, Jupiter to Saturn ½, from Saturn to the Tierkreis 1½ tone.   He calls these 7 tones the epitome of harmony; he attributes to the Saturn the Doric, to Jupiter the Phrygian key, and so on, with a pleasant, but unnecessary, sophistry."   While these statements are not consistent with nature, yet such a speculation is worthy of a philosopher and mathematician.

But tackling the work itself, where only a skilled and experienced hand can achieve excellence, is the sole concern of those who have been specially taught to practice a single art.   Therefore, it seems to me, that he who has acquainted himself with the fundamental parts of every doctrine, as far as they are required for architecture, has done enough; so that, when he is to judge and test something that goes into these things and arts, he does not get stuck or make a mistake.
But to whom nature has given so much artistic talent, ingenuity, and memory, so that he can fully embrace geometry, astrology, music, and all other arts and sciences, he does not stop at the profession of an architect, but becomes a mathematician, and can all the more easily speack about all these arts and sciences, as he is equipped with a precise knowledge of them.
But such men are rare; as once were Aristarchus of Samos, Philolaus and Archytas of Taranto, Apollonius of Perga, Eratosthenes of Cyrene, Archimedes and Skopinas of Syracuse.   Posterity owes to them many mechanical and gnomonic inventions made and proved by inference and calculation.
Since such abilities are not given by nature to everyone, but only to a very few; since it is the duty of the architect to be proficient in all sciences; and the faculty of reason allows, because of the great extent of the matter, while not unnecessarily to have the highest, though at least mediocre, insights into all the arts and sciences, I beg you, Caesar, and all those who will read my work, pardon if something is not perfectly represented in it according to the demands of rhetoric; for not as the greatest philosopher, not as an eloquent orator, nor as a grammarian in the finest of arts, ^a) but merely as an architect taught in these subjects, have I endeavored to write this book.
But as far as my art itself and its theory are concerned, I dare to promise that I will satisfy not only every curious man, but every clever man, by reliable instruction.

a)   The ancients understood under Grammar, apart from linguistics, also the instructions for poetry, oratory, history and philosophy, and the Grammarians taught in all these things.   (See Eschenburg's Handbook of the Classic Literature p. 38; Suet. De ill., Gr. C. 40!)

a)   Marcus Vitruvius Pollio

über die Baukunst.

Ersten Buchs erstes Kapitel.

Baukunst und Eigenschaften eines Baukünstlers.

[Bei dieser Übersetzung liegt die Rodische zum Grunde.]

Die Baukunst ist eine mit vielerlei Kenntnissen und mit vielseitiger Gelehrsamkeit ausgeschmückte Wissenschaft, welche sich mit geschmackvollen Urtheile die Werke aller übrigem Künste aneignet.   Sie besteht aus der Ausübung und aus der Theorie.   Die Ausübung ist eine durch Nachdenken und stete Übung erworbne mechanische Fertigkeit, aus dem Materialien ein Gebaüde nach vorgelegtem Risse aufzuführen.   Die Theorie aber ist die Geschicklichkeit, die aufgeführten Gebaüde mit Einsicht und nach den Grundsätzen des gutem Verhältnisses zu erlaütern und zu erklären.   Es haben daher diejenigen Baukünstler, welche ohne gelehrte Kenntnisse =79= blos nach mechanischer Fertigkeit strebten, nie mit ihren Arbeiten Ruhm erworben: diejenigen aber, welche sich lediglich auf die Theorie und ihre gelehrten Kenntnisse verließen, scheinen hinwiederum den Schatten für den Körper ergriffen zu haben.   Allein diejenigen, welche Beides gründlich erlernten, und wie in voller Rüstung ihren Zweck verfolgten, haben ihn umsoeher mit Ehren erreicht.   Denn sowie in allen Sachen, so sind besonders auch in der Baukunst folgende zwei Stükke begriffen: Das, was angezeigt wird, und Das, was anzeigt.   Angezeigt wird die Sache, wovon die Rede ist, und es zeigt dieselbe die, nach den Grundsätzen der Kunst davon gegebne Erläuterung an.   In Beiden nun scheint mir Der geübt sein zu müssen, der sich für einen Baukünstler ausgiebt.   Er muß daher nicht allein Naturgaben, sondern auch Lernbegierde, besitzen; denn weder Genie ohne wissenschaftliche Bildung, noch wissenschaftliche Bildung ohne Genie, kann einen vollkommnen Künstler machen.   Er muß fertig im Schreiben, erfahren im Zeichnen, der Geometrie kundig, in der Optik nicht unwissend, in der Arithmetik unterrichtet sein; er muß viele Geschichten wissen, die Philosophen fleißig gehört haben, Musik verstehen, von Medicin Kenntniß haben, mit der Rechtgelehrsamkeit bekannt sein, und mit der Sternkunde, samt dem Himmellaufe, sich vertraut gemacht haben.   Meine Gründe dafür, daß dieß Alles nothwendig ist, sind folgende. — Fertig im Schreiben muß ein Baukünstler sein, um seinem Gedächtnisse durch Aufzeichnung merkwürdiger Dinge zu Hülfe zu kommen; des Zeichnens aber bedarf er, um mit Leichtigkeit beliebige Baurisse darstellen zu können.   Die Geometrie leistet der Baukunst mancherlei Hülfe; erstlich lehrt sie den Gebrauch des Richtscheites und des Zirkels, womit die Grundrisse der Gebäude am Allerleichtesten verfertigt werden; und zweitens den Gebrauch des Winkelmaaßes, der Setzwage und der Schnur.   Vermittelst der Optik giebt man dem Gebaüde von den bestimmten Himmelgegenden das gehörige Licht.   Durch die Arithmetik werden die Baukosten berechnet: die Verhältnisse der Maaße enwikkelt und schwierige Verhältnisse nach geometrischen Grundsätzen und Methoden gefunden.   Aber in den Geschichten muß der Baukünstler bewandert sein, weil die Architekten oft viele Zierathen anbringen, worüber sie doch müssen gründliche Rechenschaft geben können, wenn sie Jemand fragt, warum sie dieselben angebracht haben.   Zum Beispiele, wenn Jemand marmorne weibliche Bildsaülen in vollem Anzuge, =81= welche Karyatiden heißen, an einem Gebäude, anstatt der Säulen, anbringt und Sparrenköpfe und Kornischen darüber setzt, der hat den Fragenden folgende Rechenschaft darüber abzulegen.   Die Stadt Karya, im Peloponnes, machte mit den Persern gemeinsame Sache wider Griechenland: als nun die Griechen durch die Niederlage der Perser sich vom Kriege befreit hatten, so kündigten sie den Karyatiden einstimmig den Krieg an, eroberten und zerstörten die Stadt, ermordeten die Männer, die Weiber aber führten sie in die Sklaverei und gestatteten ihnen nicht, die Kleidung und den Schmuck der Hausfrauen abzulegen, damit sie nicht nur einmal im Triumph aufgeführt würden, sondern, zum ewigen Gedächtniß, im tiefsten Schimpf für ihre Stadt büßen möchten. Daher bedienten sich die damaligen Baukünstler derselben zu lasttragenden Statuen an öffentlichen Gebäuden; damit auch den Nachkommen die exemplarische Strafe der treulosen Karyatiden bekannt würde.   Eben so, als die Lacedämonier, vom Pausanias Kleombrotos Sohn angeführt, mit einer geringen Mannschaft ein zahlloses Heer der Perser besiegt und die gemachte Beute in einem prunkvollen Triumph aufgeführt hatten, erbauten sie die Persische Halle von dieser den Bürgern so rühmlichen Beute, als ein Siegzeichen für die Nachwelt, und unterstützten das Dach derselben mit Bildsäulen der gefangenen Barbaren in ihrer fremden Tracht, um durch diese Beschimpfung ihren Uebermuth zu bestrafen: damit die Feinde vor ihrer Tapferkeit zittern, die Bürger aber, durch dieß Beispiel von Ruhmbegierde begeistert, stets bereit seyn möchten, die Freiheit zu vertheidigen.   Seitdem haben nun Viele Persische Statuen, welche Architraven und Kornischen tragen, angebracht, und hierdurch die angenehme Mannigfaltigkeit an den Gebäuden vermehrt.   Dergleichen Begebenheiten nun, welche dem Baukünstler nicht unbekannt seyn dürfen, giebt es mehrere.

Die Philosophie aber vollendet den Baumeister zu einer edlen Gemüthart und Denkweise; daß er nicht stolz und anmaßend, sondern bescheiden, billig, treu und rechtschaffen, und ganz vorzüglich, daß er nicht habsüchtig sei; denn ohne Treue und Redlichkeit kann kein Werk von statten gehen: daß er nicht begehrlich sei, und nicht Geschenke zu nehmen trachte; sondern unwandelbar seine Würde behaupte, und bei einem guten Namen bleibe.   Denn so gebeut es die Philosophie.   Außerdem handelt die Philosophie =83= von der Natur der Dinge, welche griechisch Physiologie genannt wird; diese muß mit vorzüglichem Fleiße studiert werden, weil sie viele und mancherlei physikalische Untersuchungen enthält: wie zum Beispiele bei den Wasserleitungen; man leite nun das Wasser abwärts, oder in Umwegen, oder man treibe es von wagerechter Fläche aufwärts: immer erzeugt sich in der Wasserleitung auf eine oder die andere Art Gas, dessen Störungen Niemand vorbeugen kann, dem nicht aus der Philosophie die Grundsätze von der Natur der Dinge bekannt sind.   Auch wird Niemand die Bücher des Ctesibius oder des Archimedes, oder auch Anderer, die hierüber Lehrbücher geschrieben haben, lesen und verstehen können, wer nicht zuvor hierin von Philosophen unterrichtet worden ist.   Die Musik aber muß er wissen, damit ihm das kanonische und mathematische ^a) Verhältniß wohl bekannt sei; und er die gehörige Bespannung der Balisten, Katapulten und Skorpionen bewerkstelligen könne.   Denn in den Kapitälen befinden sich links und rechts die Löcher der Einklänge, wodurch, vermittelst Winden, oder Haspel und Hebel, aus Sehnen gedrehte Seile gespannt werden, welche weder eher verkeilt noch angebunden werden dürfen, als biß sie dem Ohre des Künstlers bestimmte gleiche Töne angeben; weil die in diese gespannten Seile eingeklemmten Arme bei'm Abschießen ganz gleich zurückschnellen müssen, wenn der Schuß treffen soll; sind sie aber nicht im Einklänge, so wird auch der geschoßne Pfeil von der geraden Richtung abweichen.   Auch die ehernen Vasen in den Theatern, welche die Griechen ηχεια — Schallgefäße ^b) — nennen, und welche in Zellen unter den Stufen nach mathematischem Verhältnisse gestellt werden, sind, nach Verschiedenheit der Töne, der Konsonanz gemäß geordnet: indem der Umfang in Quarte, Quinte und Oktave eingetheilt wird; damit die auf der Bühne erschallende Stimme, indem sie sich rings umher verbreitet und die zusammenstimmenden Gefäße berührt, verstärkt, heller und angenehmer zu den Ohren der Zuschauer gelange.

a)   Hiervon handelt Vitruvius ausführlich im 4ten K. des 5ten Buchs.   Siehe daselbst Rode's Kommentar.

b)   Dieß wären eherne oder irdene Vasen, von denen Vitr. (B. 5, K. 4.), und Rode (in den Anmerkungen) umständlich reden.

Ia auch Wasserorgeln und andere diesen ähnliche Instrumente kann Niemand ohne Theorie der Musik verfertigen.   Wissenschaft von der Medicin muß er haben, um zu beurtheilen, ob das Klima, ob Luft und Wasser gesund oder ungesund sind; denn ohne daß hierauf die gehörige Rücksicht genommen wird, ist keine gesunde Wohnung möglich.   Der Rechte muß er insofern kundig seyn, als es zur Aufführung gemeinschaftlicher Wände, zur Anlage =85= der Dachtraufen, der Kloaken und der Fenster, ingleichen zur Ableitung des Wassers und zu andern solchen Dingen, erforderlich ist; damit er, bevor er ein Gebäude anfängt, alle Vorsicht gebrauche, daß nach dessen Vollendung den Familienvätern nicht Prozesse zurückbleiben; und damit bei Aufsetzung des Kontraktes sowohl Der, welcher den Bau verdingt, als Der, welcher ihn übernimmt, sich klüglich vorsehen und sicher stellen könne; denn wenn nur der Kontrakt mit Einsicht abgefaßt worden, so können Beide ohne allen Verdruß und Schaden auseinander kommen.   Die Sternkunde endlich lehrt ihn, wo Morgen, Abend, Mittag und Mitternacht sei; die Kenntniß des Himmels aber die Tag - und Nachtgleichen, die Sonnwenden und den Lauf der Gestirne, ohne deren Kenntniß Niemand die Theorie der Uhren inne haben kann.

Da nun die Baukunst mit so vielen und so mancherlei Kenntnissen so reich geschmückt ist; so glaube ich, daß sich Niemand auf einmal mit Recht für einen Architekten ausgeben könne, sondern daß man, von zarter Kindheit an, von Stufe zu Stufe in diesen Kenntnissen aufsteigend, vertraulich in diesen so verschiedenen Künsten und Wissenschaften aufgewachsen seyn muß, um zum höchsten Gipfel der Baukunst zu gelangen.

Vielleicht aber werden Unerfahrne sich wundern, wie es möglich sei, daß Eines Menschen Verstand und Gedächtniß zureiche, eine so große Menge von Kenntnissen zu fassen.   Doch wenn sie bedenken, daß alle Wissenschaften untereinander in Verbindung und Gemeinschaft stehen, so werden sie leicht einsehen, daß Dieß möglich ist.   Denn ein encyklopädisches Ganzes (Rundganzes) der Wissenschaften ist wie ein Leib, der aus seinen Gliedern besteht.   Wird man nun im zarten Alter in den mannigfaltigsten Wissenschaften und Künsten unterrichtet, so bemerkt man das Ähnliche, und den wechselseitigen Zusammenhang aller Wissenschaften, und begreift eben deßhalb Alles weit leichter.   Daher auch Einer der alten Architekten, Pythius, der zu Priene den Tempel der Minerva mit so vielem Ruhm erbaut hat, — in seinen Schriften behauptet: Ein Architekt müsse in allen Künsten und Wissenschaften mehr ausrichten können, als Diejenigen, welche in einzelnen Dingen durch anhaltenden Fleiß es zur höchsten Vortrefllichkeit gebracht haben.   Allein, Dieß ist der Natur der Sache zuwider. =87= Denn ein Architekt braucht nicht und kann nicht ein Grammatiker, wie Aristarch, seyn, ein Musiker, wie Aristoxenus, ein Maler, wie Apelles, ein Bildner, wie Myron oder Polyklet, ein Arzt, wie Hippokrates: sondern es ist genug, wenn er nur in allen diesen, so wie in den übrigen Künsten und Wissenschaften, nicht ganz und gar unerfahren ist, ohne gerade in einer jeden sich ganz vorzüglich hervorzuthun.   Denn bei einer so großen Mannigfaltigkeit von Gegenständen ist es nicht möglich, das Feinere und Edlere in Jedem zu erreichen; da es schon kaum in des Menschen Kräften steht, die Theorie derselben einzusehn und zu behalten.   Auch können ja die Baukünstler nicht etwan allein die Virtuosität in allen einzelnen Dingen nicht erreichen, sondern sogar Die, welche sich ausschließend auf einzelne Künste beschränken, können nicht Alle zugleich den Erstpreiß davon tragen.   Wenn nun in einzelnen Geschicklichkeiten nicht einmal alle, sondern nur wenige einzelne Künstler unvergänglichen Ruhm erlangt haben; wie kann ein Baukünstler, der zugleich in mehreren Künsten erfahren seyn muß, es dahin bringen, es an keiner fehlen zu lassen, Was gewiß schon nichts Geringes ist, sondern auch alle Künstler zu übertreffen, die sich mit anhaltendem Fleiß ausschließend auf einzelne Geschicklichkeiten gelegt haben?   Hierin also scheint mir Pythius geirrt zu haben, indem er außer Acht gelassen, daß jede Kunst aus zwei Stücken besteht, aus der Ausübung und der Theorie.   Die Eine nun ist Denen eigen, welche, diese Kunst besonders zu treiben, sich befleißen, nehmlich die Ausübung; die andere aber ist allen Wissenschaftkundigen gemein, nehmlich die Theorie.   So sprechen Aerzte und Musiker vom Rhythmus der Adern und von der Füße Bewegung; ist aber eine Wunde zu heilen, oder ein Kranker der Gefahr zu entreißen, so wird nicht ein Musiker hinzutreten, sondern Dieß wird ein eigentümliches Geschäft des Arztes seyn.   Dagegen wird nicht der Arzt, sondern der Musiker, auf dem Instrumente spielen, wenn die Ohren angenehm durch, Musik unterhalten werden sollen.   Eben so werden auch Beide, die Astronomen und Musiker , von der Sympathie der Sterne und der Konsonanzen (musikalischen Harmonien) reden, in Dreiecken und Vierecken, ^a) in Quarte und Quinte; und mit ihnen der Geometer von der Sehkunst, welche die Griechen Optik heißen; und überhaupt alle Wissenschaften von vielen, ja von allen Dingen, die sie in der Theorie mit einander gemein haben. =89=

a)   Aus einer Stelle eines alten, ungenannten Erklärers s des Ptolemäus schließe ich, daß die alten Mathematiker die innern Winkel am Mittelpunkte des regelmäßigen, im Kreis beschriebenen, Dreieckes, Viereckes und Sechseckes, unter einander und mit den musikalischen Grundverhältnissen verglichen.   Es ist wirklich der Winkel des Dreiecks zu dem es Sechseckes = 120° . . 60° = 2 . . 1, also im Verhältnisse der Oktave; ferner der W. d. V. zu dem des S. = 90° . . 60° = 3 . . 2, im Verhältnisse der Quinte; endlich der W. des Dr. zu dem des V. = 120° . . 90° = 4 . . 3, im Verhältnisse der Quarte. — Hieher gehört ein Unheil des Plinius (L. II. c. 20.): "Zuweilen" sagt er, "nennt Pythagoras, nach Art der Musiker, die Weite der Erde vom Monde einen Ton, des Mondes vom Merkur ½ Ton; von Merkur bis zur Venus ½ Ton; der Venus zur Sonne 1½, der Sonne zum Mars 1, Mars zu Jupiter ½, Jupiter zu Saturn ½, vom Saturn bis zum Thierkreis 1½ Ton.   Diese 7 Töne nennt er den Inbegriff der Harmonie; dem Saturn schreibt er die dorische, dem Jupiter die Phrygische Tonart zu, u. s. w. mit einer zwar angenehmen, aber unnöthigen, Spitzfindigkeit."   Zwar stimmen diese Angaben nicht mit der Natur übeiein, doch ist eine solche Speculation eines Philosophen und Mathematikers würdig.

Doch das Werk selbst anzugreifen, wo man nur durch eine geschickte und geübte Hand das Vortreffliche erlangen kann, ist einzig die Sache Derer, welche besonders dazu unterrichtet worden sind, um eine einzelne Kunst auszuüben.   Daher scheint mir Der genug geleistet zu haben, welcher sich von jeder einzelnen Doktrin ihre Haupttheile und Grundlehren soweit bekannt gemacht hat, als sie zur Baukunst erforderlich sind; damit er, wenn er Etwas, das in diese Dinge und Künste einschlägt, beurtheilen und prüfen soll, nicht stecken bleibe oder einen Fehler begehe.   Wem indeß die Natur so viel Kunsttalent, Scharfsinn und Gedächtniß verliehen hat, daß er sich Geometrie, Astrologie, Musik und alle andere Künste und Wissenschaften völlig zu eigen machen kann, der bleibt nicht bei dem Baukünstler stehen, sondern wird ein Mathematiker, und kann um so leichter über alle diese Künste und Wissenschaften sprechen, als er mit genauer Kenntniß derselben ausgerüstet ist.   Solche Männer giebt es aber nur selten; wie einst Aristarchus, von Samos, Philolaus und Archytas, aus Tarent, Apollonius, aus Perge, Eratosthenes, aus Kyrene, Archimedes und Skopinas, aus Syrakus.   Ihnen hat die Nachwelt viele mechanische und gnomonische, durch Schluß und Berechnung gemachte und erwiesene, Erfindungen zu verdanken.   Da nun solche Fähigkeiten von der Natur nicht Jedermann, sondern nur höchst Wenigen, verliehen werden; da es die Pflicht des Architekten ist, in allen Wissenschaften geübt zu seyn; und die Vernunft, wegen des großen Umfanges der Sache, gestattet, zwar nicht unnötigerweise die höchsten, doch wenigstens mittelmäßige Einsichten in alle Künste und Wissenschaften zu haben: so bitte ich dich, Cäsar, und alle Die, welche mein Werk lesen werden, um Verzeihung, wenn sich darin Etwas nicht vollkommen nach den Forderungen der Redekunst dargestellt findet; denn nicht als der größte Philosoph, nicht als ein beredter Redner, noch als ein in den feinsten Regeln der Kunst geübter Grammatiker, ^a) sondern blos als ein von diesen Gegenständen unterrichteter Architekt, habe ich mich, dieses Buch zu schreiben, bemüht.   Was aber meine Kunst selbst, und deren Theorie betrifft, so getraue ich mir, zu versprechen, daß ich nicht nur jedem Baulustigen, sondern jedem gescheidten Manne, durch zuverlässigen Unterricht genügen werde.

a)   Die Alten begriffen unter Grammatik außer der Sprachkunde auch die Anleitung zur Dichtkunst, Redekunst, Geschichte und Philosophie, und in allen diesen Dingen ertheilten die Grammatiker Unterricht. (S. Eschenburg's Handbuch der klass, Lit. S. 38; Suet. de ill. Gramm. c. 40!)

b)   From the preface to the sixth book.

I therefore feel myself under infinite obligations, and am grateful to my parents, who, adopting the principle of the Athenians, took care that I should be taught in an art, and one of such a nature that it cannot be practiced without erudition and without an Encyclopedic (structural) knowledge of all sciences.   Since, then, by my parents' care, and by the instruction of masters, I had the means afforded to me of acquiring my manifold scientific knowledge, and being naturally delighted in occupying myself with literary and philosophical subjects, and with the writing down of what is worthy of note: I acquired my intellectual riches, the fruit of which is that I feel no need, and that my greatest wealth is to need nothing.
But some will pay little attention to these things, believing that only those who have plenty of money are wise; hence, many, aiming at that end alone, have at the same, by the aid of their impudence, acquired notoriety from their riches.   But I, o Caesar, ^a) have never tried to acquire money with my art; but I have followed the principle of preferring a modest fortune with a good reputation to a wealth rich in shame.   Therefore, I am little known; yet I still hope, by this book, to become known to posterity.
Therefore it is also not surprising that I am so completely unknown to so many.   Other architects canvass and go about soliciting employment [to get buildings]; but my teachers have instilled into me a sense of the propriety of being asked to undertake [to be entrusted with] a construction, not to ask for it; because a man of noble demeanor would be ashamed to ask for a favour.   Because the givers of a favour and not the receivers, are courted.   Because if someone is solicited by another to be entrusted with the expenditure of his money to please the supplicant, should he not suspect that he is being asked a favour for the sake of gain and employment?
Hence, our ancestors entrusted their buildings only to those architects who recommended themselves by noble lineage; then they examined whether they had received a good education; because they believed that they had to confide in only modest noble senses, not bold audacity. =92= The architects, however, taught the art only to their own children or relatives, and made them righteous men, whose faithfulness and honesty could be entrusted with considerable sums to erect large edifices without concern. ^a)

a)   The book is dedicated to Caesar Augustus, who had given Vitruvius a job in the construction of his war machines.

a)   But I, o Caesar — — can be entrusted   These words carry a purely-human, high, noble-minded spirit, which separates every true scientist and artist from every impudent charlatan, who in his person would abase what is sacred of humanity, if it were not sublime above all personality.

b)   Aus der Vorrede zum sechsten Buche

Daher sage ich meinen Eltern, und weiß ihnen, großen, ja unendlichen Dank, daß sie, das Gesetz der Athener billigend, mir eine gründliche Erziehung in meiner Kunst geben ließen, und zwar in einer Kunst, in welcher man es ohne Gelehrsamkeit und ohne eine encyklopädische (gliedbauliche) Kenntniß aller Wissenschaften nicht weit bringen kann.  Indem ich durch die Sorgfalt meiner Eltern, und durch den Unterricht meiner Lehrer meine vielfachen wissenschaftlichen Kenntnisse erweiterte, und viel Vergnügen darin fand, mich mit Gegenständen der Literatur und der Kunst, und mit dem Niederschreiben des Merkwürdigen, zu beschäftigen: erwarb ich meinem Geiste Besitztümer, deren Frucht es ist, daß ich keine Notwendigkeit fühle, begüterter zu seyn, und daß mein größten Reichthum darin besteht, Nichts zu bedürfen.   Doch zuverlässig werden Einige Dieß gering achten, welche glauben, nur die Geldreichen seien weise: und so haben sehr Viele, die nach diesem Ziele strebten, mit Frechheit gerüstet, mit Reichthume zugleich sich auch einen Namen erworben.   Ich aber, o Kaiser, ^a) habe mich nie bemüht, mit meiner Kunst Geld zu erwerben; sondern bin dem Grundsatze gefolgt, ein mäßiges Vermögen mit gutem Ruf einem Reichthume, der mit Schande gepaart ist, vorzuziehen.   Daher bin ich wenig gekannt, werde aber durch die Herausgabe dieser Schrift dennoch auch der Nachwelt bekannt seyn.   Es ist auch gar nicht zu verwundern, daß ich so Vielen ganz unbekannt bin.   Andere Baukünstler bitten und bewerben sich, um Bauten zu bekommen; mich aber haben meine Lehrer gelehrt: gebeten, nicht auf eignes Bitten, einen Bau zu übernehmen; weil ein Mann von edlem Betragen sich schämen werde, um eine Verdacht erweckende Sache zu bitten.   Denn Die, welche eine Wohlthat ertheilen, nicht Die, welche sie empfangen, müssen gesucht werden.   Denn wenn Jemand gebeten wird, dem Bittenden zu Gefallen einen Theil seines ererbten Familiengutes aufzuwenden, soll er nicht den Verdacht schöpfen, man verlange es von ihm, um ihn zu berauben und zu bevortheilen?   Daher übergaben unsere Vorfahren ihre Baue blos solchen Baukünstlern, die sich durch eine edle Herkunft empfahlen; dann untersuchten sie, ob dieselben eine gute Erziehung genossen hatten; denn sie glaubten, sich nur schamhaftem Edelsinne, nicht kühner Frechheit, =92= anvertrauen zu müssen.   Die Künstler aber selbst lehrten die Kunst nur ihren eignen Kindern oder Verwandten, und bildeten sie zu rechtschaffenen Männern, deren Treue und Redlichkeit man bedeutende Summen zu großen Bauwerken ohne Besorgniß anvertrauen könnte. ^a)

a)   Das Werk ist dem Augustus zugeeignet, welcher dem Vitruvius eine Anstellung bei seinem Krieggezeugbau verliehen hatte.

a)   Ich aber — — anvertrauen könne.   Diese Worte athmen einen reinmenschlichen, hohen, edlen Sinn, der jede echten Wissenschaftforscher und Künstler von jedem frechen Pfuscher sondert, der in seiner Person das Heilige der Menschheit entadeln würde, wenn es nicht über alle Persönlichkeit erhaben wäre.

*

E)   Evidence points about the Existence, the Constitution and relations of the Colleges and Corporations in general, and the Building Corporations in particular, among the Romans
and the Britons under Roman rule.

[At pages 464 - 466 of the first volume.]

Foreword.

The concordance of Vitruvius' art teachings on the education and dignity of an architect with the sayings of our three oldest Craft Records; the conjuncture that the authors of the York Constitution recommend the writing of this architect as the principal source of genuine art (Vol. 1. p. 566 f.) and claim that architecture had come to Britain through Italian and Gallic master builders (Vol. 1. p. 567), and the York Constitution itself, according to their records, have been set up according to the institutions of the Greeks, Romans and Gauls, (Vol. 1. p. 578): all this makes it indispensable for the historian to investigate the written memorials of the Romans, of the Greeks, of the Franks, and Britons, and to examine whether the allegations given here, and indeed the whole account of the York Constitution, concern historically the origin and development of Masonry in Britain, (Vol. 1 pp. 566-578).
I share in the following disquisition the results of a widespread, though not quite complete, survey of the sources.   They suffice to set the historical fidelity of the York constitution beyond doubt =93= and to prove every single one of its statement in documentary form.   The further diligence of the antiquity-exploring brethren will put the many individual circumstances, which here could only be implied, in an even brighter light.

For the first part of this essay I found in J. Gottl. Heineccius' of collegia et corporations of artisans [Guilds], York 1723. [70 pages in 4to] a useful preparatory work which I have carefully used, here and there abbreviated, in other places expanded and corrected.   I have indicated in the text with quotation marks what I have borrowed from it, but by the letters Hn. in the notes.   The most important evidence from the Corpus Juris [Body of Law], independently from Heineccius, had been given to me in full by a profoundly knowledgeable friend of mine, my beloved friend, Bro. Burkhardt; and as in my own investigation of the Corpus Juris, I have found no further passages, other than those cited by me, the present investigation, as far as the Corpus Juris is concerned, must be essentially completed.   The passages evidenced by Bro. Burkhardt are designated by Br.   According to Bro. Burkhardt's assurance, nothing contained in the Corpus Juris Canonici [Body of Canon Law], is pertinent here. — In regard to everything else that comes from me, I must call upon the antiquities-knowing brethren to scrutinize it keenly, as this object is one of the most difficult in the tradition of Roman and Greek antiquity and contains points on which the greatest antiquarians and archaeologists, in the overview of the whole literature, were able to shed only a meager light.

In order for this essay to satisfy learned brethren, and to induce them to further inquiries, the remarks under the text have been specifically and comprehensively written.

E)   Beweisstellen über das Daseyn, die Verfassung und die Verhältnisse der Kollegien und Korporationen überhaupt, und der Baukorporationen insbesondere, bei den Römern
und bei den Briten unter römischer Herrschaft.

[Zu der 464 — 466ten Seite des ersten Bandes.]

Vorerinnerung.

Die Übereinstimmung der Kunstlehren des Vitruvius über die Bildung und die Würde eines Architekten mit den Aussprüchen unserer drei ältesten Kunsturkunden; der Umstand, daß die Verfasser der Yorker Konstitution die Schrift dieses Baumeisters als Hauptquelle echter Kunst empfehlen (B. 1. S. 566. f.), und behaupten, die Baukunst sei durch italienische und gallische Baumeister nach Britannien gekommen (B. 1. S. 567.), und die Yorker Konstitution selbst sei den Einrichtungen der Griechen, Römer und Gallier, laut den Urkunden derselben, gemäß eingerichtet worden (B. 1. S. 578.): alles Dieß macht es dem Geschichtforscher unerlaßlich, die schriftlichen Denkmale der Römer, der Griechen, der Franken und Briten durchzuforschen, und zu untersuchen, ob sich die hier angeführten Behauptungen, und überhaupt die ganze Erzählung der Yorker Konstitution über den Ursprung und den Fortgang der Maurerei in Britannien, (B. 1. S. 566 - 578.) geschichtlich bewahren.   Die Ergebnisse einer ausgebreiteten, obwohl noch nicht ganz vollständigen, Durchmusterung der Quellen theile ich in der folgenden Abhandlung mit.   Sie reichen hin, um die geschichtliche Treue der Yorker Konstitution außer Zweifel zu setzen, =93= und jede einzelne Behauptung derselben urkundlich zu belegen.   Manchen einzelnen Umstand, der hier nur angedeutet werden konnte, wird der fernere Fleiß alterthumforschender Brüder in noch helleres Licht setzen.

Für den ersten Theil dieser Abhandlung fand ich an J. Gottl. Heineccius de collegiis et corporibus opificum, Halae 1723. [70 S. 4to] eine brauchbare Vorarbeit, welche ich, sie abkürzend, an andern Stellen erweiternd und berichtigend, hier sorgfältig benutzt habe.   Was ich daraus im Text entlehne, habe ich mit Anführzeichen, in den Noten aber durch die Buchstaben Hn., ausgesondert.   Die wichtigsten Beweisstellen aus dem Corpus Juris hatte mir ein tiefer Kenner desselben, mein geliebter Freund, der Br. Burkhardt, unabhängig von Heineccius, vollständig angegeben; und da ich bei eigner Durchforschung des Corpus Juris keine weiteren Stellen, als die von mir angeführten, gefunden, so möchte wohl die vorliegende Untersuchung, was das Corpus Juris betrifft, im Wesentlichen vollendet seyn.   Die vom Br. Burkhardt nachgewiesenen Stellen sind mit Br. bezeichnet.   Im Corpus juris canonici ist, nach Br. Burkhardt's Versicherung, nichts hieher Gehöriges enthalten. — In Ansehung alles Übrigen, welches von mir herrührt, muß ich die alterthumkennenden Brüder zu einer um so schärfern Prüfung auffordern, als dieser Gegenstand Einer der schwierigsten in der Kunde des römischen und griechischen Alterthumes ist, und Punkte enthält, worüber die größten Antiquare und Archäologen, im Überblicke der ganzen Literatur, nur spärliches Licht zu verbreiten vermochten.

Damit diese Abhandlung gelehrten Brüdern genügen, und sie zu weiteren Nachforschungen veranlassen könne , sind die Bemerkungen unter dem Texte bestimmt und ausführlich abgefaßt worden.

*

a)   On the Colleges and Corporations,
especially those of the Builders, among
the Romans in general.

"Immediately after the foundation of Rome, there were no artists or artisans there; it was considered unworthy of a Roman citizen to engage in a business, and Romulus dictated to his citizens that they should abstain completely from acquiring all mechanical arts, as a non-free (illiberal) practices, ^a) and only to lead a warlike =94= and agricultural life. ^a)   In the same way, Lycurgus ^b) forbade his free citizens to acquire all arts, while all the other Greek states favored it.   The successor of Romulus, Numa, on the other hand, sought to civilize the Roman citizens, to make them more inclined to acquire civic arts, ^c)and to introduce regular guilds."   Since, in general, several of the Numa's institutions seem to be in a more intimate relationship with the mysteries of the ancients; so I will deal with the more important things that Plutarch contains in the description of this king's life.

a)   Dionysius of Halic. Rome Antiquities, L. II. p. 98. Hn.

a)   Ibidem p. 79. Hn.

b)   Xenophon , de Lac. rep. c. VII. Hn.

c)   Pliny, Natural History - L. 34. c. 1, and L. 35. c. 12. Plutarch in Numa. Hn.

"Plutarch states: ""According to a general legend, Numa was a disciple of the philosopher Pythagoras, but this does not stand the text of chronology, since Pythagoras lived five generations (150 years) after Numa; but a certain Spartan, who also carried the name of Pythagoras, helped him to improve the Roman state.   Numa was a native of Cures, a Sabine; these, however, considered themselves a Spartan colony.   It is precisely for this reason that so many Spartan customs and laws have been added to [those of] the Roman state.   Numa had all his intellectual abilities formed through instruction and diligence, and with love for wisdom.
After the death of his wife, Tatia, daughter of Tatius, who ruled with Romulus, he almost always remained in the countryside in uninhabited areas, solitary in the groves of the gods, or in sacred meadows; hence the myth says that by marriage with the nymph Egeria he became a happy man, well-experienced in all divine things.
Nevertheless, Plutarch even let him say in his speech to the Roman envoys: "I am born of mortal parents, and taught and raised by people whom you all know.   Those qualities which I am praised of, the silent, reclused life, the preoccupation with the sciences distant from the sounds of the world, are as unfavorable to a ruler as the innate great inclination for peace and its arts, =95= and for such people, who come together only for the worship of the gods or friendly repast, but otherwise to engage in silence in agriculture or livestock breeding, and so on."

— He sought to civilize the Romans through religious customs, religious sacrificial offerings, solemn parades and dances.   This has probably caused most of the rumor that Numa owed his wisdom to the teaching of Pythagoras; for in the philosophical life of the latter the meticulous and intimate dealings with God was also the most important work. Pythagoras had trained an eagle, showing a golden hip [?]; Numa, too, needed the love of a goddess or mountain Nymph, and boasted not only a secret dealings with her, but also a frequent conversation with the Muses.   He even pretended that he received most of his revelations from the Muses; especially that he had obtained it from those of the Romans, especially to admiring one of them, which he calls Tacita (the secretive, or silent); a fact which seems to prove that he had the Pythagorean silence in mind and honored it.   His ordinances, which concern the worship of the gods, are very much in accord with the doctrines of Pythagoras; he forbade, for example, like Pythagoras, to portray gods by images of men or animals, — the lesser the better, — and so on.
Numa is said to have also built the round temple of Vesta for the preservation of the inextinguishable fire, not to represent the figure of the earth, but that of the universe; in the center of which the Pythagoreans also set the fire, calling it Vesta (Hearth) or Monad (unity)." ^a) =96= Several customs of Numa have a hidden meaning, and this allowed him to indulge in some so-called pious deception.""

a)   Others suspect that the Vestals still have several holy places, kept in the temple of Vesta, which no one was allowed to see.   According to Plutarch's quotations (Camillus, c. 20), someone suspects they have kept the Samothracean Mysteries.   Pythagoras undoubtedly knew most of the Mysteries of the ancient world as one of their Initiates, as well as the constitution of the Roman state.   From this can be easily explained the conformity of Numa and Pythagoras; At the same time this gives a hint about the nature of the most ancient mysteries.   In this respect, the following circumstance is also noteworthy.   "In the year 573 of Rome Ab urbe condita, also 535 years after Numa, two stone coffins, =96= are supposed to have been washed out, or, according to others, dug up on the [banks of] the river Tiber, of which one contained the corpse of Numa, but the other 12 books he had written; these books were burned" [perhaps because they dealt with secrets dangerous to the then state government].     See Livy. I. 40. c. 29. Valerius Maximus L. 1, 12.   Lactantius The Divine Institutes L. 1. c. 22.!

"At this point Plutarch comes to the subject that is pertinent here.   ""Among all the state institutions of Numa," he says, "one admires most the distribution of the the arts among the people (τε πληϑους) [the plurality of].   Because, as the city was made up, as they say, by two races [Latins and Sabines], but was split, and in no way wanted to become unified - - - ; so Numa decided to divide the whole population into several parts, and thereby he created quite different distinctions, so to render that first and great separation inconspicuous.   This was the division of the arts (crafts, guilds,) into flute-players, goldsmiths, wood, stone and metalworkers, dyers, leather-cutters, tanners, bronze-workers, and potters.   (Artes tibicinum, ^a) jewelers, smiths (τεϰτονων) ^b) dyers, shoemakers (σϰυτοτομων), tanners (σϰυτοδεψων), coppersmiths (χαλϰεων), [Pliny 34, 1 et 8., lists the most famous] figulorum.)   He combined the rest of all the arts into one, and made of them all one Corporation.   For each division of these artists he ordained appropriate peculiar Guilds, guild Assemblies and divine services. ^c)   =97= As a result, for the first time he noticed that the Romans no longer considered themselves Romans and Sabines, citizens of Tatius and of Romulus, nor did call themselves as such.""

a)   At the services as servant of the priest at games, weddings (Livy IX, 30).

b)   Carpenters, blacksmith and others, who were also used in the [building of] tools of war and, according to Livy, still belonged to the first class of citizens, that is, to the richest; but perhaps they are only listed as servants of them.   (See Adam's Roman Antiquities, translated by Meyer, 1794. p. 157!)   Every artist who makes a work of bodywork out of some material is called Faber [smith]; with the exception of those who work in gypsum, wax, clay, and the like, which are called -makers.   Fabricare [to build] is used for construction. L. 9. D. de aedif. priv. (8, 10.) L. 9. D. de oper. publ. (8, 12.)

c)   Έν άυτο έϰ πασιν άπεδειξε συςημα, ϰοινονιας δε ϰαι συνοδους ϰαι ϑεων τιμας άποδους έϰαςτψ γενει πϱεπουσας.   [And he made out of each of them a body, and Collegia and Gatherings, and to each sect gave sacred propriety.]   Hn.

"The college [Guild] of wood, stone, and metalworkers (τεϰτονων, smith) mentioned here dealt, according to Pliny, ^a) only with bronze and coin workers (fabros aerarios, workers in brass), ^b) but probably only the latter were a single branch of this expanded guild, since the term Smith (τεϰτον) applied, linguistically, to one dealing with metal and wood, both for coarser and finer work, and later on referred also to the "Faber" [smith] of the Collegia Fabrorum tignariorum, ^c) Collegia fabrorum et centonariorum; ^d) Collegia dendrophororum, fabrum centonariorum; centuriae centonariorum, ^e) dolabrariorum, scalariorum;" ^f) (that is: the Carpenters Guilds [home builders]; the Guild of engineers, who carried fire machines [fire-brigades]; the Guild of beam-carriers, the men working with fire machines, carrying axes and ladders).   "The above-mentioned Colleges included our carpentry guild, and at the same time had to put out fires ^g) and, equipped with axes, fire hooks, etc., went through the city as a fire watch. ^h)   The Dendrophors, =98= tree-carriers, had to take care of fetching timbers in the forests, the burning of coal, the supply of logs and the like, as well as more religious things, and, according to the Decree of Constantine the Great, ^a) were counted among the Fabri [Smiths]."

a)   Pliny Natural History, L. 34. c. 1. Hn.

b)   The Roman coins were still made of brass at that time. Pliny 1. c. Hn.

c)   Smetii Inscriptions p. 57, 3. Hn.

d)   Ibid. p. 46, 4. Hn.

e)   "Cento was a fire-equipment of unknown kind." Jul. Caesar de b.c.L.II, c. 8.   Vegetius, De Re Militari, L. IV, c. 15; Cod. L. 12. § 18." — Hn. — Cento seems to mean a mat; for, among other things, to cover the fortress with damp mats, so that they would be more difficult to damage by fire; for example, it was a fire blanket [extinguisher]. — An old inscription at Sponheim (Misc., Ed., pp. 57. 62. 63. and Fabret., p. 485.) says: M. Junius Sabine IV, centonarior [textiles dealer], patron of the municipal college [guild] of builders by power of the Julian Law.

f)   Smet. Inscriptions p. 159, 13. Hn.

g)   Pliny L. X. Letters. 42. Hn.

h)   L. 3. §. 3. of the office of city watcher. Hn.

a)   Alciato. ad L. 167. D. d. v. sign. — Hn.   See the precise details of the beam-carriers in Reinesius Inscriptions. 1, 40. p. 75.   Also in John Lydus de mensibus p. 85. they are mentioned as a kind of priests.   However, the dendrophori seem to be similar to those which, according to the Tarruntenus Paternus report (D. 50 tit. 6. § 60), were in charge of felling timbers and of making coal (qui silvam infindunt, qui carbonem caedant ac torrent). Below we will come back to this noteworthy Guild again.
*

"From the latter Collegium, founded by Numa, in which he consolidated the other artists, was born later," according to Heineccius's opinion, "the Collegium magnum, which in later times was more concerned with worship than manual labor." ^b)

"From Plutarch's information we also see that Numa bestowed on these colleges a Guild Right and certain worship duties.   The Fraternity (association) consisted of: "that the college could meet on fixed days, discuss together matters of their trade and what was best for the college, and dine together at joint expense." ^c)

The Greeks called a society with this right έταιϱεια [corporation], a cooperative, brotherhood, fellowship. ^d)   At the end each college had its superiors, ^e) some of whom were in charge of the actual affairs, others of the treasury (fisci rationes conficerent) [to keep records of the treasury].
Therefore, in the old inscriptions is found: Magistri quinquennales Coll. Fabr. Tignarior; ^a) =99= Magistri quinquennales coll. aurificum. Honorati et Scriba e fabroarum tignariorum; collegii magni viator." ^b)   (That is, Quinquennial masters of the College of Carpenters, Quinquennial Masters of the College of Goldsmiths, the honorary members and scribes (secretaries) of the carpenters of the great college of wayfarers.   "As these collegia were gradually detested by the power of the state, each one of them chose a patron (patronum) from the patricians and the nobility to advocate on their behalf in dealing with the senate and the people.   Therefore, on ancient monuments now and again is mentioned: Patron of the college centonariorum; dendrophororum; fabrorum ^c) and many others. ^d)   Each college had a guild treasury, which is called in Roman law and inscriptions Arka (Chest). ^e)   Further, Numa wanted every college to have peculiar religious customs.   Only so much is certain, in want of detailed information on this peculiar fact, that each college had chosen a deity considered as the Head and protector of the college, and often appears on ancient monuments under the name of Genius; ^f) for example, Genius coll. Cent; Genius collegium Tibicinum romanorum q. s. p. p. ^a) =100=

*
b)   Smet. Inscr. p. 27, 6; p. 47, 10. — Hn. See especially Reines. I, 101!

c)   L. 20. C. Theod. de pagan.

d)   Or even ϰοινον, συνοιϰια, συνοδος [community, neighborhood, synod].   Compare here the remarks on the Dionysian artists, which I have given to Lawrie's History of Freemasonry, (Freiberg 1810) pp. 336-342. — Since such fraternization very often degenerated into political clubs, so later έταιϱεια [partnership] received this meaning.

e)   Έταιϱειαϱχον [Masters].   Nicetae Annal. 9, 17.

a)   "What was the task of the Magistri [magistrate, masters] of Colleges is learned from the work of Asconius "Trial against Piso": the masters of the colleges used to organize games, like the magistri vicorum (magistrates in charge of city wards) organized the Compitalia the festival of the Lares. In like manner, I think, the Masters of the Colleges in the Celone, took charge of those tasks that the magistri vicorum in Rome did for the Compitalia" (see Sertor. de notis Romm. in Graev. Thes. T. XI.)

b)   Smet. Inscr. p. 96, 4; p. g6, 2; 57, 3; 97, 10. — Hn.

c)   Reines. Inscr. Classe I, 302, 283; Classe II, 17. — Hn.

d)   On the origin and the office of this Patron see Praesidis syntagm. Antiqu. Rome. L. I: T. II. N. 19. — Hn.   According to Valla, [Donation of Constantine] the Patron is merely the administrator of the claimant; but in more general sense, the Patron is protecting and supporting his Supplicants (clients) in every danger of honor or property.

e)   L. I. §. 1. ff.   In an inscription (Smet. Inscriptions, pp. 34, 10) is decreed, as of the year XDC [590], on the 8th of October, the anniversary of the Deified Augustus, the prudent administration of the Arka [threasury chest]. — Hn.

f)   That is why the ancient Masonic custom to offer wine to the Genius with the words: funde merum Genio! is so important.   (See Section I, pp. 165 no. 43 and p. 351!)

a)   Reines. Cl. I. n. 302; Raph. Volaterr. Comm. Urb. L. 30; Reines. Cl. I. n. 167. — Hn.

"Each college also had its own festive days on which it practiced its liturgical activities." ^b)   But especially the Fabri [Smiths], that is, the wood, stone, and metalworkers of all kinds, appear to have had local magnificent acts of worship of their own. ^c)   This would be evident from the fact that they had temples of their own in various places, such as for example, a famous temple, the templum centonariorum et fabrorun, that stood at Regium [scroll down to p. 53]. ^d)   The Fabri seem to have especially worshiped Silvanus and, in his honor, carried spruce branches from sacred groves through the city; which also happened at the festivals of Bacchus, of Apolllo, of Hecate and of Ceres. ^e)   For that reason, not only these Fabri, but also Sylvan himself, were called tree-bearers (dendrophori). ^f)   That is why the Emperor Honorius, in 399 AD, probably forbade the practice of giving offerings and sacrificial feasts, including the colleges [guilds], which he knew to be manly supporters of pagan worship and superstition. ^g)   From this ordinance, however, it follows by no means that these Dendrophori were distinguished from the rest of the Fabris, nor did Honorius abolish their college [guild], but only that he had forbidden the religious practices originally granted to them by Numa [eleven centuries earlier]."

b)   Livy. L. 9, c. 30; Ovid's Festivals. L. III. verse 821. — Hn.

c)   This is why in the Roman inscription following below, found in Britain, the interpretation of: qui a sacris sunt, who have to manage the acts of worship, appears to be the right one.

d)   Gruter. Inscriptions, p. CI, 1. — Hn.

e)   Strabo, X. Artemid. II, 42. — Hn.

f)   Smet. Inscriptions 27, 10.   Compare: Virgil. Aeneid. 9, 81 — Hn.   See also the Note "e" at p. 98 above!

g)   L. I. C. t. XI, c. 1 et 4. De pagan: — Hn.   This noteworthy caption about the prevailing notions that the Christian-Roman emperors had ordered or favored the destruction of temples and works of art, — may be very correct.

"Numa was followed by the belligerent Tullus Hostilius.   He was especially averse to all worship institutions; =101= So most likely he abrogated the guild institutions struck by Numa, because they deprived him of ready to fight fighters.   That is why Florus ^a) could say of Servius Tullius, the third successor of Tullus Hostilius: ""Under him the Roman people were subjected to assessment (census), and divided into classes according to wealth, also distributed into Curiae and colleges [guilds]; and by the great endeavors of this king, the state was set up in such a way that all differences of wealth, standing, age, craft (artium), and of office should be recorded in tabular form.""
But this institution of Numa, among many others, were quashed again also by Tarquinius Superbus, as he, as Dionysius of Halicarnassus ^b) tells, ""by means of an edict, revoked all assemblies previously held by the people of the land, by the inhabitants of the very urban area, and by neighboring areas, so that the citizens would be deprived of any opportunity to make joint consultations against him.""

a)   Florus. Lib. I, c. 6.   See Dionysius Hal. L. IV, p. 221 — Hn.

b)   Dionysius Hal. L. IV. p. 246. Hn.

"While, after the overthrow of the kings, those who held authority ruled and more or less oppressed the people, the colleges and guilds had to be greatly despised for nourishing parties and turmoil.   Therefore, the Patricians (the members of the ruling families) did not restore the guilds, and did not want the citizens to carry on crafts.   For this reason, Menenius Agrippa, in that well-known address to the people, points to the necessity of having able-bodied citizens, but not farmers, merchants and sedentary craftsmen. ^c)
From a famine that affected Rome in his 276th years, assures Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the city had fallen in very difficult times, because the number of women, children, slaves, merchants, and craftsmen was three times greater than that of the citizens; by then no Romans were allowed to keep an inn or do manual labor. ^d)
But after the people had obtained Tribunes, =102= and the right to honorary posts and the priests would have been forced out of the Senate, the collegia and guilds seem to have been restored; for we find them shortly thereafter (in the year of Rome 302, when the Laws of the 12 Tables were adopted) confirmed and set in the laws of the twelve tables. ^a)

c)   Dionysius Hal. L. VI, p. 382. Hn.

d)   Dionysius Hal. L. IX, p. 583. Hn.

a)   Since the laws of the twelve tablets transplanted most of Greek institutions on Roman soil; so this seems to be a new point of union of the Roman guild institutions with the much older Greek ones.
*

"One can learn this from the following words of the jurist Caius: — ""Guildsmen (members of)" he says, "are those who belongs to the same College, which the Greeks call a έταιϱειαν [cooperative] (association). ^b)   But to them a law prescribes the right to conclude among themselves whatever covenants, if only they are not contrary to public legislation; and this law seems to have been taken from Solon's legislation." ^c)
Upon this Caius also cites Solon's own words: "And if a class of people, or a part of them, or fellows (priests?) of secret worship (of the mysteries), or boatmen, table-mates, funeral societies, or fellows of festive feasting, [fellows of common worship?] and this right shall be valid, unless prohibited by public law, also for those who travel for buying and selling, or entering into trade, enter into contracts with each other." ^d)
At that time, Roman citizens were engaged in trade =103= and crafts; but they were less respected; and though the artisans were enrolled in the Tribus, and, as Sigonius ^a) had shown, had suffrage in the people's assembly, surely they could not serve in war, except perhaps in the desperate condition of the empire, and if themselves came under fire in turmoils. ^b)
Nonetheless, in addition to those instituted by Numa still new Collegia emerged, ^c) among which also that of the charioteers (aurigatores),^d) of ballista makers (balistarii), ^e) of iron smiths (fabri ferrarii), ^f) of shipbuilders (naupegiarii), ^g) of surveyors (mensores), ^h) of builders ⁱ⁾ (structores) ^k).

b)   See Note d) at p. 98!

c)   See Salmasius Observations ad jus atticum et romanum, C. 4!

d)   This passage, from Dionysio I. 47. t. C. 4, reads fully as follows: "Gaius book IV, of the law of the Twelve Tables.   Sodales, the members are those who belong to the same college, which the Greeks call έταιϱειαν [association].   The law gives them the power to establish their own rules of conduct, so as not to be adversely affected by public law.   But it seems that this derives from the laws of Solon: If you define people, or confreres, (Cujac. or followers of sacred orgies; Salm. holy orgies) or sailors, or of dining companions, or of the same burial society, or followers of Bacchus, or of many other subjects, or of far away traders, of people sharing some goods with each other, they have the right to do it, if the public laws do not forbid it."  Gothofredus wants to attribute this law only to the Fratres Arvales, as Heineccius (p. 21) shows, but without reason. See on this Edv. Platner de coll. diss. 2. (Leipzig, 1809.) p. 5.

a)   Sigonius. de ant. jure civ. Rom. L. II, c. 2. p. 342. Hn.

b)   Livy. VIII, 20; Sallust the Jugurthine War 86. Hn.

c)   Livy. II, 21 and 27. Ovid. Festivals. V, 672; Livy. V, 50; Cicero. ad Q. Fr. I, ep. 5; L. 7. C. de excus. mun; Reines. cl. X. 1, 8, 9, 10, I, 254, 275, 139; XI, 79, 64. Smet. p. LV, 3; XXXI, 2; LXX, 6; XXXIV, 5; XXIX, 5; LXX, 6; XXIII, 13; CVI, 1; LXX, 6; C, 4; CLVII, 15; LV, 3; LXIVX, 8; XXXI, 2; Gruter. p. LXXXI, 10; DCXIII, 3.   Hn.

d)   Ίπποϰομος.   glossarium.

e)   Who made ballistae, (ballistarum artifices) — machines for throwing stones, especially in sieges.   Sometimes the catapults are called like that.   (Amnian, 16, 2.)   Vitruvius had been given the post of a War Architect by Angustus..

f)   Pliny. 28, 16.

g)   Ναυπηγος [Naval Architect]. Inscr. Spon. misc. p. 67.

h)   Measuring-artists and tax-auditors, determining the measure and the value of all things of value, land, houses, grain, wine, (D, I, 11, 6, 5, § 2), especially used for surveyors, for measuring land, roads, storage areas, etc.   At times even architects are called that; Pliny Ep. 10, 28. For details see D. l. XI, tit. 6.   whenever they are so falsely called!

i)   Cicero, Letters to Atticus 14, 3, names those whom he used in the construction of his country estate (villa).   Maybe they are the same as the fabris caementariis. Compare Tribon. l. 1. C. de excus. artif; Veget. 2, 11!

k)   Reines. Inscriptions Cl. X, 12; Nov. 85; Reines. Cl. X. 6; L. 2. C. Theod. de excus. artif.; Smet. LXX, 6; XXXIV, 5.   Hn.

a)   Ueber die Kollegien und Korporationen,
besonders die der Bauleute, bei den Römern
überhaupt.

"Unmittelbar nach Rom's Erbauung gab es daselbst keine Künstler und Handwerker; man hielt es eines römischen Bürgers für unwürdig, ein Gewerbe zu treiben, und Romulus schrieb seinen Bürgern vor, sich der Ausübung aller mechanischen Künste, als eines unfreien (illiberalis) Erwerbes, ganz zu enthalten, ^a) und blos ein kriegerisches =94= und ackerbauliches Leben zu führen. ^a)   Eben so verbot Lykurg ^b) seinen freien Bürgern allen Kunsterwerb, während alle andere griechische Staaten denselben begünstigten.   Der Nachfolger des Romulus, Numa, dagegen suchte die römischen Bürger zu entwildern, sie zu bürgerlichem Kunsterwerbe geneigter zu machen, ^c) und regelmäßige Zünfte einzuführen."   Da überhaupt mehrere Einrichtung gen des Numa mit den Mysterien der Alten in innigerer Beziehung zu stehen scheinen; so will ich das Wichtigere, was Plutarchus in der Lebenbeschreibung dieses Königes hierüber enthält, auszuglich mittheilen.

a)   Dionys. Halic. Ant. Rom. L. II. p. 98. Hn.

a)   Ibidem p. 79. Hn.

b)   Xenophon de Lac. rep. c. VII. Hn.

c)   Plin. Hist. nat. L. 34. c. 1, und L. 35. c. 12. Plutarchus in Numa. Hn.

"Plutarch führt an: ""nach einer allgemeinen Sage sei Numa ein Schüler des Philosophen Pythagoras gewesen; allein Dieß bestehe nicht mit der Zeitrechnung, da Pythagoras an fünf Menschenalter (150 Jahre) nach Numa lebte; sondern ein gewisser Spartaner, der auch den Namen Pythagoras führte, habe Jenem bei Verbesserung des römischen Staates geholfen.   Numa war von Cures gebürtig, ein Sabiner; Diese aber hielten sich für eine lakedämonische Kolonie.   Eben auf diesem Wege sollen dem römischen Staate so viele lakodämonische Gebräuche und Gesetze beigemischt worden seyn.   Numa hatte alle seine Geistanlagen durch Unterricht und Fleiß, und mit Liebe zur Weisheit, ausgebildet.   Nach dem Tode seines Weibes, der Tatia, Tochter des Tatius, der mit Romulus regierte, hielt er sich fast immer auf dem Lande in unbewohnten Gegenden, einsam in Hainen der Götter, oder in geheiligten Auen, auf; daher die Mythe sagt, er sei durch Vermählung mit der Nymphe Egeria ein beglückter, in allen göttlichen Dingen wohlerfahrner Mann geworden.   Dennoch läßt ihn Plutarch selbst in der Rede an die römischen Abgesandten sagen: "ich bin von sterblichen Eltern erzeugt, und von Menschen, die ihr Alle kennt, unterrichtet und aufgezogen.   Jene Eigenschaften, die man an mir rühmt, das stille eingezogne Leben, die Beschäftigung mit den vom Geräusche der Welt entfernten Wissenschaften, schicken sich für einen Herrscher eben so wenig, als die mir angeborne große Neigung zum Frieden und seinen Künsten, =95= und zu solchen Menschen, die nur zur Verehrung der Götter oder zu freundschaftlichen Mahlen zusammen kommen, sonst aber in der Stille sich mit dem Feldbau oder der Viehzucht beschäftigen, u. s. w." — Er suchte durch religiöse Gebräuche, durch Opfer, feierliche Aufzüge und Tänze die Römer zu entwildern.   Dieß hat nun wohl am meisten das Gerücht veranlaßt, daß Numa seine Weisheit dem Unterrichte des Pythagoras verdankt habe; denn bei dem philosophischen Leben des Letztern war ebenfalls der genaue und vertraute Umgang mit Gott das Hauptwerk.   Pythagoras hatte einen Adler abgerichtet, zeigte eine goldne Hüfte; eben so brauchte Numa die Liebe einer Göttin oder Bergnymphe, und rühmte sich nicht nur eines geheimen Umganges mit ihr, sondern auch einer öftern Unterhaltung mit den Musen.   Er gab sogar vor, daß er die Meisten seiner Offenbarungen von den Musen empfinge; besonders hielt er die Römer an, Eine derselben, die er Tacita (die verschwiegene, oder stumme,) nannte, vorzüglich zu verehren; ein Umstand, der su beweisen scheint, daß er das pythagoreische Stillschweigen vor Augen hatte und in Ehren hielt.   Eben so sind auch seine Verordnungen, welche die Verehrung der Götter betreffen, mit den Lehrsätzen des Pythagoras sehr übereinstimmend; er verbot z. B., wie Dieser, die Götter durch Bildnisse von Menschen oder Thieren, — das Bessere durch das Geringere, — darzustellen, u. s. w.   Numa soll auch den runden Tempel der Vesta zur Aufbewahrung des unauslöschlichen Feuers erbaut haben, nicht um die Gestalt der Erde, sondern die des Weltall, vorzustellen; in dessen Mitte auch die Pythagoräer das Feuer setzen, und es Vesta (Heerd) oder Monas (Einheit) nennen." ^a) Mehrere Gebräuche des Numa =96= haben einen verborgenen Sinn, und der erlaubte sich manchen sogenannten frommen Betrug.""

a)   Andere vermuthen, die Vestalinnen haben noch mehrere Heiligthümer, die Niemand sehen durfte, in dem Tempel der Vesta aufbewahrt.   Nach Plutarch's Anführen (Camillus, c. 20.) vermuthet Jemand, sie hätten die samothrakischen Geheimnisse aufbewahrt.   Pythagoras aber kannte ohne Zweifel die meisten Geheimnisse der alten Welt als ihr Eingeweiheter, so wie wohl auch die Verfassung des römischen Staates.   Hieraus ist die Uebereinstimmung des Numa und des Pythagoras ohne Zwang zu erklären; und Dieß giebt zugleich einen Wink über die Beschaffenheit der ältesten Mysterien.   In dieser Hinsicht ist auch folgender Umstand merkwürdig.   "Im 573ten Jahre Rom's, also 535 Jahre nach Numa, sollen an der Tiber zwei steinerne Särge, =96= von der Tiber ausgewaschen, oder nach Anderen durch Nachgraben, aufgefunden worden seyn, deren Einer den Leichnam des Numa, der andere aber 12 von ihm geschriebne Bücher, enthalten habe; diese Schriften habe man" [vielleicht weil sie der damaligen Staatregierung gefährliche Geheimnisse befaßten,] "verbrannt."   Siehe Liv. I. 40. c. 29. Valer. Max. I, 1, 12. Lactant. Inst. I, 1. c. 22. !

"Hierauf kommt Plutarchus auf den uns hier zunächst angehenden Gegenstand.   ""Unter allen Staateinrichtungen des Numa," sagt er, "bewundert man am meisten die Vertheilung des Volkes (τε πληϑους) unter die Künste.   Denn da die Stadt aus zwei Geschlechten, wie man sagt, vereint, aber vielmehr veruneint war, und auf keine Weise Eins werden wollte — — —; so fiel Numa darauf, das ganze Volk in mehrere Theile einzutheilen, und, indem er dadurch ganz andere Unterschiede stiftete, jene erste und grosse Trennung unscheinbar zu machen.   Dieß war die Vertheilung nach den Künsten (Gewerben, Zünften,) in Flötenbläser, Goldschmidte, Holz - Steinund Metallarbeiter, Färber, Lederschneider, Gerber, Erzarbeiter und Töpfer.   (Artes tibicinum, ^a) aurificum, fabrum (τεϰτονων) ^b) tinctorum, sutorum (σϰυτοτομων), coriariorum (σϰυτοδεψων), aerariorum (χαλϰεων), [Plin. 34, 1 et 8., zählt die berühmtesten auf] figulorum.)   Alle übrige Künste verband er in Eine, und machte aus ihnen allen Eine Korporation.   Für eine jede Abtheilung dieser Künstler verordnete er angemessne eigne Zünfte, Zunftversammlungen und Gottesverehrungen. ^c)   Dadurch =97= bemerkte er zuerst, daß die Römer sich nicht mehr für Römer und Sabiner, für Bürger des Tatius und des Romulus hielten, noch also benannten.""

a)   Bei dem Gottesdienste als Diener der Priester Liv. IX, 30, bei Spielen, Hochzeiten.

b)   Zimmerleute, Schnidte und andere, welche auch bei den Kriegwerkzeugen gebraucht wurden und, nach Livius, noch zu der ersten Klasse der Bürger, also zu den Reichsten, gehörten; vielleicht sind sie aber nur als Diener derselben aufgeführt. (S. Adam's Röm. Alterthümer, übers. v. Meyer, 1794. S. 157!)   Jeder Künstler, der durch Körperarbeit aus irgend einem Stoffe ein Werk fertigt, heißt Faber; mit Ausnahme Derer, die in Gyps, Wachs, Thon und dergleichen arbeiten, welche Plastae genannt werden.   Fabricare wird vom Bauen gebraucht.   L. 9. D. de aedif. priv. (8, 10.) L. 9. D. de oper. publ. (8, 12.)

c)   Έν άυτο έϰ πασιν άπεδειξε συςημα, ϰοινονιας δε ϰαι συνοδους ϰαι ϑεων τιμας άποδους έϰαςτψ γενει πϱεπουσας.   Fecitque ex omnibus =97= corpus unum, collegiaque et concilia atque sacra cuique sectae decentia attribuit.   Hn.

"Das hier erwähnte Kollegium der Holz - Stein - und Metallarbeiter (τεϰτονων, fabrorun, Schmidte,) befaßte, nach Plinius, ^a) blos die Erz - und Münzarbeiter (fabros aerarios, Arbeiter in Erz) ^b); Allein wahrscheinlich waren Letztere nur ein einzelner Zweig dieser ausgebreiteten Zunft, da der Name Faber (τεϰτον) sprachgemäß sowohl gröbere, als feinere, Metall - und Holzarbeit befaßt, und späterhin auch Collegia Fabrorum tignariorum, ^c) Collegia fabrorum et centonariorum; ^d) Collegia dendrophororum, fabrum centonariorum; centuriae centonariorum, ^e) dolabrariorum, scalariorum;" ^f) (das ist: die Kollegien der Zimmerleute; das Kollegium der Zimmerer, welche Matten (Feuermaschinen) tragen; die Kollegien der Baumträger, die Centurien der Matten -, Axt - und Feuerleiter -Träger.)

"Die erwähnten Kollegia umfaßten unsere Zimmergewerke, und mußten zugleich Feuerbrünste dämpfen ^g) und, mit Äxten, Feuerhaken u.s.w. versehen, die Stadt als Feuerwachen durchgehn. ^h)   Die Dendrophori, Baumträger, hatten =98= den Holzschlag in den Forsten, das Kohlenbrennen, die Zufuhre der Baustämme u.d.m., allein außerdem auch mehrere religiöse Dinge, zu besorgen, und wurden, nach Konstantin des Großen Verordnung, ^a) zu den Fabris gerechnet."

a)   Plin. Hist. Nat. L. 34. c. 1. Hn.

b)   Die Münzen der Römer waren damals noch aus Erz. Plin. 1. c. Hn.

c)   Smetii Inscriptiones p. 57, 3. Hn.

d)   Ibid. p. 46, 4. Hn.

e)   "Cento war ein Feuergeräthe von nicht bekannter Art. Jul. Caesar de b. c. L. II, c. 8. Veget. de re mil. L. IV, c. 15; Cod. L. 12. §. 18." — Hn. — Cento scheint eine Matte zu bedeuten; denn man bedeckte unter andern die Festung werke mit feuchten Matten, damit sie schwerer zu beschädigen wären: so bediente man sich derselben auch bei Feuergefahren. — Eine alte Inschrift bei Sponheim (Misc. erud. Ant. p. 57. 62. 63. und Fabret. p. 485.) sagt: M. Junius Sabinus IV. vir aediliciae potestatis e lege Julia municipali patronus Collegii Centonariorum.

f)   Smet. Inscr. p. 159, 13. Hn.

g)   Plin. L. X. Epist. 42. Hn.

h)   L. 3. §. 3. de offic. praef. vigil. Hn.

a)   Alciat. ad L. 167. D. d. v. sign. — Hn.   Siehe über die Dendrophoren ausführlich Reines. ad inscr. 1, 40. p. 75.   Auch in Joannes Lydus de mensibus p. 85. werden sie als eine Art Priester erwähnt.   Allerdings scheinen die Dendrophori mit Denen einerlei zu seyn, welche, nach des Tarruntenus Paternus Bericht, (D. 50 tit. 6. §. 60.) den Holzschlag und das Kollenbrennen besorgen (qui silvam infindunt, qui carbonem caedant ac torrent).   Weiter unten werden wir nochmals auf dieses merkwürdige Kollegium zurückkommen.

"Aus dem letztern, von Numa gestifteten, Kollegium, worin er die übrigen Künstler zusammenfaßte, entstand, [nach Heineccius Meinung,] "späterhin das Collegium magnum, welches sich in späteren Zeiten mehr mit gottesdienstlichen Verrichtungen, als mit Handarbeit, beschäftigte." ^b)

"Aus der Nachricht des Plutarchus sehen wir ferner, daß Numa diesen Kollegien ein Zunftrecht und gewisse gottesdienstliche Verrichtungen verlieh.   Die Zünftigkeit (sodalitas) bestand darin: "daß die Kollegia an festgesetzten Tagen zusammenkommen, sich zusammen über Angelegenheiten ihres Gewerks und über das Beste des Kollegium berathen, und auf gemeinsame Unkosten zusammen speisen durften." ^c)   Eine Gesellschaft mit diesem Rechten nannten die Griechen έταιϱεια, eine Genossenschaft, Bruderschaft, Verbrüderung. ^d)   Zu dem Ende hatte jedes Kollegium seine Vorgesetzten, ^e) wovon Einige die eigentlichen Geschäfte leiteten, Andere den Schatz (fisci rationes conficerent) besorgten.   Daher finden sich in den alten Inschriften: Magistri quinquennales Coll. =99= Fabr. tignarior; ^a) Magistri quinquennales coll. aurificum.   Honorati et Scriba e fabroarum tignariorum; collegii magni viator." ^b)   (Fünfjährige Meister des Kollegium der Zimmerleute; fünfjährige Meister des Kollegium der Goldarbeiter; die Ehrenmitglieder und Schreiber (Sekretäre) der Zimmerleute des großen Kollegium der Viatoren.   "Da diese Kollegia nach und nach bei der Staatgewalt verhaßt wurden; so wählte sich ein Jedes derselben aus den Patriziern und dem Adel einen Schutzherrn (patronum), welcher sie bei dem Senate und dem Volke vertreten sollte.   Daher werden auf alten Denkmalen hin und wieder erwähnt Patroni coll. centonariorum; dendrophororum; fabrorum ^c) und andere mehr. ^d)   Jedes Kollegium besaß eine Zunftkasse, welche im römischen Rechte und Inschriften Lade (Arka) genannt wird. ^e)   Ferner wollte Numa, daß ein jedes Kollegium eigenthümliche religiöse Gebräuche haben möchte.   Nur so viel ist, in Mangel ausführlicher Nachrichten über diesen merkwürdigen Umstand, gewiß, daß jedes Kollegium sich eine Gottheit erwählt hatte, welche als dem Kollegium vorgesetzt betrachtet wurde, und auf alten Denkmalen häufig unter dem Namen Genius vorkommt; ^f) z. B. Genius coll. Cent; Genius coll. Tibicinum romanorum q. s. p. p. ^a) =100=

b)   Smet. Inscr. p. 27, 6; p. 47, 10. — Hn. Siehe vorzüglich Reines. I, 101!

c)   L. 20. C. Theod. de pagan.

d)   Oder auch ϰοινον, συνοιϰια, συνοδος.   Man vergleiche hier die Bemerkungen über die dionysischen Künstler, welche ich zu Lawrie's Geschichte der Freimaurerei, (Freiberg 1810.) S. 336 - 342. gegeben habe. — Da dergleichen Verbrüderungen sehr häufig in politische Clubbs ausarteten, so hat späterhin auch έταιϱεια diese Bedeutung erhalten.

e)   Έταιϱειαϱχον.   Nicetae Annal. 9, 17.

a)   "Magistri Collegiorum munus quale esset, ex Asconio in Pisonianam constat: solebant, inquit, magistri collegiorum ludos facere, sicut magistri vicorum faciebant compitalitios praetextati.   Ex quibus opinor, Magistros Collegorum in Coloniis, illa obiisse munera, quae Magistri vici in Urbe, pro ludis compitalitiis. (v. Sertor. de notis Romm. in Graev. Thes. T. XI.)

b)   Smet. Inscr. p. 96, 4; p. g6, 2; 57, 3; 97, 10. — Hn.

c)   Reines. Inscr. Classe I, 302, 283; Classe II, 17. — Hn.

d)   Über den Ursprung und das Amt dieser Patrone siehe Praesidis syntagm. Antiqu. Rom. L. I: T. II. n. 19. — Hn. Nach Valla ist der Patron blos der Sachwalter des Klägers; aber in allgemeinerer Bedeutung überhaupt der Schutzherr, der seinen Schutzling (clientem) in jeder Gefahr der Ehre oder der Güter schützt und unterstützt.

e)   L. I. §. 1. ff.   In einer Inschrift (Smet. Inscr: p. 34, 10.) wird verordnet, ut annui XDC., die VIII Kal. Octobr. natali Divi Augusti erogentur ex Arka. — Hn.

f)   Daher ist der uralte Maurergebrauch dem Genius mit den Worten: funde merum Genio!   Wein zu spenden, so bedeutend.   (Siehe B. I S. 165 no:43. und S. 366!)

a)   Reines. Cl. I. n. 302; Raph. Volaterr. Comm. Urb. L. 30; Reines. Cl. I. n. 167. — Hn.

"Auch hatte ein jedes Kollegium seine eignen festlichen Tage, an denen es seine gottesdienstlichen Handlungen übte. ^b) Vorzüglich aber scheinen die Fabri, das ist die Holz- Stein- und Metallarbeiter aller Art, ausgezeichnete eigne, und ihnen gleichsam häusliche, gottesdienstliche Handlungen gehabt zu haben. ^c)   Dieß würde schon daraus erhellem, daß sie an verschiedenen Orten eigne Tempel hatten, so wie z. B. zu Regium ein berühmter Tempel, templum centonarior um et fabrorun, stand. ^d)   Die Fabri scheinen vorzüglich den Sylvanus verehrt und zu seiner Ehre Fichtenzweige aus heiligen Hainen durch die Stadt getragen zu haben; Welches auch außerdem an Festen des Bacchus, des Appollon, der Hekate und der Ceres geschah. ^e)   Deßhalb eben wurden nicht nur diese Fabri, sondern auch Sylvan selbst, Baumträger (Dendrophori) genannt. ^f)   Daher untersagte wahrscheinlich der Kaiser Honorius, in J. 399 nach Christus, überhaupt die Opfer und Opferschmauße, also auch den Kollegien, die er als vorzügliche Anhänger des heidnischen Gottesdienstes und Aberglaubens kannte. ^g)   Aus dieser Verordnung folgt indessen keinesweges, daß diese Dendrophori von den übrigen Fabris unterschieden gewesen, noch auch das Honorius ihr Kollegium aufgehoben, sondern blos, daß er die ihnen von Numa gestatteten Religiongebräuche zuerst verboten habe."

b)   Liv. L. 9, c. 30; Ovid. Fast. L. III. v. 821. — Hn.

c)   Daher scheint in der unten anzuführenden, in Britannien gefundenen. römischen Inschrift die Lesart: qui a sacris sunt, Welche die gottesdienstlichen Handlungen zu besorgen haben, die richtige zu seyn.

d)   Gruter. Inscr. p. CI, 1. — Hn.

e)   Strabo, X. Artemid. II, 42. — Hn.

f)   Smet. Inscr. 27, 10.   Vergleiche: Virgil. Aeneid. 9, 81 — Hn.   Vergleiche auch die Note e zu S. 98!

g)   L. I. C. t. XI, c. 1 et 4. De pagan: — Hn.   Dieser merkwürdige Titel kann die herrschenden Vorstellungen, als hätten die christlich - römischen Kaiser die Zerstörung der Tempel und der Kunstwerke befohlen, oder begünstiget, — sehr berichtigen.

"Auf Numa folgte der kriegerische Tullus Hostilius.   Er war vorzüglich allen gottesdienstlichen Einrichtungen =101= abgeneigt; hob also höchst wahrscheinlich auch die von Numa getroffenen Zunfteinrichtungen wieder auf, weil sie ihm streitfertige Kämpfer entzogen.   Daher konnte Florus ^a) vom Servius Tullius, dem dritten Nachfolger des Tullus Hostilius, sagen: ""Von ihm wurde das römische Volk der Schatzung (census) unterworfen, und nach dem Vermögen in Klassen gebracht, auch unter Kurien und Kollegien vertheilt; und durch die großen Bemühungen dieses Königs wurde der Staat so eingerichtet, daß alle Unterschiede des Erbtheils (Vermögens), des Standes, des Alters, der Künste (artium) und der Ämter tabellarisch aufgezeichnet werden mußten."" Allein auch diese Einrichtung des Numa, nebst vielen andern, vernichtete auf's Neue Tarquinius superbus, indem er, wie Dionysius von Halikarnassus ^b) erzählt, ""durch ein Edikt alle Versammlungen, welche zuvor von den Landleuten, von den Bewohnern desselben Stadtgebietes, und von Nachbarn gehalten worden waren, aufhob, damit den Bürgern alle Gelegenheit zu gemeinsamen Berathschlagungen wider ihn entrissen würde."

a)   Flor. Lib. I, c. 6.   Vergl. Dion. Hal. L. IV, p. 221 — Hn.

b)   Dion. Hal. L. IV. p. 246. Hn.

"Während, nach der Vertreibung der Könige, die Mächtigeren herrschten und das Volk mehr oder weniger unterdrückten, mußten die Kollegia und Zünfte sehr veraßt seyn, weil sie Parteien und Aufruhr nährten.   Daher stellten die Patrizier (die Mitglieder der vorberechtigten Familien) die Zünfte nicht wieder her, und wollten überhaupt nicht, daß die Bürger Handwerke trieben.   Deßhalb verweist Menenius Agrippa, in jener bekannten Anrede an das Volk, auf die Nothwendigkeit, wehrhafte Bürger, nicht aber Ackerbauer, Kaufleute und sitzende Handwerker, zu haben. ^c)   Von einer Theurung, welche Rom in seinem 276ten Jahre betraf, versichert Dionysius von Halikarnassus, sie sei deßhalb so schwer gefallen, weil die Zahl der Weiber, Kinder, Sklaven, Handelleute und Handwerker dreimal so groß, als die der Bürger, gewesen; indem es damals keinem Römer erlaubt gewesen sei, ein Gasthaus zu halten oder Handarbeit zu treiben. ^d)  Seitdem jedoch das Volk Tribunen erhielt, =102= und das Recht auf Ehrenämter und Priester würden dem Senate abgezwungen hatte, scheinen auch die Kollegia und Zünfte wieder hergestellt worden zu seyn; denn wir finden sie kurz darauf (im Jahre Roms 302, wo die Gesetze der 12 Tafeln angenommen wurden,) in den Gesetzen der zwölf Tafeln ^a) bestätigt und eingesetzt.

c)   Dion. Hal. L. VI, p. 382. Hn.

d)   Dion. Hal. L. IX, p. 583. Hn.

a)   Da die Gesetze der zwölf Tafeln meist griechische Einrichtungen auf römischen Boden verpflanzten; so scheint Dieß auch ein neuer Vereintpunkt der römischen Zunfteinrichtungen mit den weit älteren griechischen zu seyn.

"Man kann Dieß aus folgenden Worten des Rechtgelehrten Cajus ersehen. — ""Zunftgenossen (sodales)" sagt er "sind, welche zu demselben Kollegium gehören; Welches die Griechen eine έταιϱειαν (Genossenschaft) ^b) nennen.   Diesen aber schreibt ein Gesetz das Recht zu, unter sich was immer für Verträge zu schließen, wenn sie nur der öffentlichen Gesetzgebung nicht zuwider sind; und zwar scheint dieß Gesetz aus Solon's Gesetzgebung genommen zu seyn." ^c)   Hierauf führt Cajus auch Solon's eigne Worte an: "Und wenn eine Volkklasse, oder ein Theil derselben, oder Genossen (Priester?] des geheimen Gottesdienstes (der Mysterien), oder Schiffer, Tischgenossen, Begräbnißgesellschaften, oder Genossen festlicher Schmauße, [Genossen gemeinsamen Gottesdienstes?] ferner Die, welche auf Kauf und Verkauf ausgehn, oder auf Handel, unter einander Verträge schließen, so soll Dieß gültig seyn, falls es nicht durch die öffentlichen Gesetze verboten ist." ^d)   Damals beschäftigten sich also zwar römische Bürger mit Handel und =103= Gewerken: allein sie wurden deßhalb weniger geachtet; und obgleich die Handwerker in die Tribus eingeschrieben waren, und, wie Sigonius ^a) gezeigt hat, Stimmrecht in der Volkversammlung hatten: so konnten sie doch wohl nicht im Kriege dienen, außer etwa im verzweifelten Lagen des Reichs, und wenn sie bei Aufruhr selbst unter die Waffen traten. ^b)   Dennoch entstanden zu den von Numa errichteten noch neue Kollegia, ^c) worunter auch Wagenlenker (aurigatores), ^d) Wurfgeschoßmacher (balistarii), ^e) Eisenschmidte (fabri ferrarii), ^f) Schiffbauleute (naupegiarii), ^g) Meßkünstler (mensores), ^h) Bauleute ⁱ⁾ (structores) ^k) sich finden.

b)   Siehe die Note d) zu S. 98!

c)   Siehe Salmasii Observ. Ad jus Atticum, C. 4!

d)   Diese Stelle, aus D. I. 47. t. 2. c. 4, lautet vollständig so: "Gaius libro IV. ad legem XII. Tabularum.   Sodales sunt, qui ejusdem collegii sunt: quam Greci έταιϱειαν vocant.   Hic autem potestate facit lex, pactionem, quam velint, sibi ferre: dum ne quid ex publica lege corrumpatur.   Sed haec lex videtur ex Solonis translata esse: Έαν δε δημος η φϱατοϱες, ή ϊεϱων όϱγιων, ή ναυται, (Cujac. ϊεϱων όϱγιων μηνυται; Salm. ϊεϱων όϱγεωνες) ή συσσιτοι, ή όμοταφοι, (Salmas. όμογαλοι al. όμοτϱοφοι) η ϑιασωται, ή έπι λιαν, [Salmas. ϰαπηλιαν; alii λειαν άϱχομενοι.   Cujac. VII, obs. 30.   Alii vertunt: pecorum coemtores.] όιχομενοι, ή έις έμποϱιαν, ότι άν τετων διαϑωνται πϱος άλληλους, ϰυϱιον έιναι, έαν μη άπαγοϱευη δημοσια γϱαμματα.   Gothofredus will dieß Gesetz blos auf die Fratres arvales ziehen, aber, wie Heineccius S. 21. f. Zeigt, ohne Grund.   S. Hierüber Edv. Platner de coll. opific. diss. 2. (Lips. 1809.) p. 5.

a)   Sigon. de ant. jure civ. Rom. L. II, c. 2. p. 342. Hn.

b)   Liv. VIII, 20; Sall. de bello Jug. 86. Hn.

c)   Liv. II, 21 und 27. Ovid. Fast. V, 672; Liv. V, 50; Cic. ad Q. Fr. I, ep. 5; L. 7. C. de excus. mun; Reines. cl. X. 1, 8, 9, 10, I, 254, 275, 139; XI, 79, 64. Smet. p. LV, 3; XXXI, 2; LXX, 6; XXXIV, 5; XXIX, 5; LXX, 6; XXIII, 13; CVI, 1; LXX, 6; C, 4; CLVII, 15; LV, 3; LXIVX, 8; XXXI, 2; Gruter. p. LXXXI, 10; DCXIII, 3.   Hn.

d)   Ίπποϰομος.   Gloss.

e)   Welche die Ballisten, — Maschinen zum Steinwerfen, vorzüglich bei Belagerungen, — verfertigten (ballistarum artifices).   Zuweilen heißen auch die Schleuderer so. (Amnian. 16, 2.) Vitruvius hatte das Amt eines Kriegbaumeisters von Angustus erhalten.

f)   Plin. 28, 16.

g)   Ναυπηγος. Inscr. Spon. misc. p. 67.

h)   Meßkünstler und Taxatoren, die das Maaß und den Werth aller geldwerthen Dinge, Grundstücke, Häuser, Getraide, Wein, (D, I. 11. t. 6. c. 5. §. 2.) bestimmten, vorzüglich Feldmesser, welche zum Ausmessen der Ländereien, der Straßen, der Lagerplätze etc. gebraucht wurden.   Zuweilen heißen auchArchitekten so; Plin. Ep. 10, 28.   Sielte hierüber ausführlich D. l. XI, tit. 6. si mensor falsum modium dixerit!

i)   Cicero, Att. 14, 3, nennt Diejenigen so, deren er sich bei Erbauung seines Landgutes (villa) bediente.   Vielleicht sind sie mit den fabris caementariis einerlei.   Vergleiche Tribon. l. 1. C. de excus. artif; Veget. 2, 11!

k)   Reines. Inscr. Cl. X, 12; Nov. 85; Reines. Cl. X. 6; L. 2. C. Theod. de excus. artif.; Smet. LXX, 6; XXXIV, 5.   Hn.

"These colleges and corporations were introduced not only in Rome, but also in the Free Cities (municipiis, cities having Roman citizenship) and colonies." =104=   Just as many schools of orators and grammarians thrived in all the provinces, arts and crafts were also busily practiced there.   For example, the Colleges of Fabri, dendrophori, and centonari were especially famous in Rome; and in like manner they flourished in the provinces. ^a)

"Soon, however, it was noticed that these colleges and corporations became dangerous to the state, easily degenerating into parties and political clubs.   The tribunes of the people especially used them to force through their agendas. ^b)   To this was added the frequent and improper revelry and feasting of the people, which may have especially persuaded the emperors to abolish several collegia. ^c)   Even Varro complains that the colleges' ineradicable feasting increases the price of cereals [grains].   To the Jews, however, Augustus permitted their colleges and assemblies, "as schools of moderation and justice." ^d)   Claudius too, according to Dionysius, cites the intemperance of the colleges as the reason why he abolished them.   The first attempt to destroy them in part and limit them to their ancient and indispensable [features] was made in the year 685 [ab urbe condita]; ^e) but only eight years later the plebeian tribune, Clodius, ^f) restored and promoted them further, so that ""all people of the lowest popular class were allowed to form Collegia. =105=
An inscription in Reinesius ^a) tells that foreign travelers ^g) (peregrini) joined in Collegia in Rome and in the free cities; and even slaves could do it, with the permission of their masters. ^b) — Under the emperors the guilds became even more hateful; even Julius Caesar and Augustus abolished all guilds, except those of ancient age."   "Most state-disruptive parties (revolutionary factions)," says Suetonius, ^c) "gathered under the title of a new college for almost every violent, illegal enterprise.   That is why Angustus dissolved the Collegia, except the ancient and legitimate ones."

a)   Grut. CCCL, 6; CCCCXCV, 5; CLXXV, 7; CCCIX, 8; CCCCLXXXI, 9; CCCCLXXXVI, 5; CLXXV, 3; Wolf. Laz. de Rep. Rom. Lib. XII, c. 4. P. 90.   Hn.

b)   Livy. l. 40, c. 51; Cicero. pro domo, 5, 28, 32; Cic. qu. acad. 4, c. 47; pro Flacco, 8; Catil. 4, c. 8. Q. Cic. de petit. cons. c. 1. Asc. Paed. ad Cic. pro Milone p. 1319.   Hn.

c)   Cujac. L. VII. obs. 30. — Hn.   Although such meals, but without sacrifices and in time of public pleasure, remain permitted. C. l. 1, t. 11, c. 4.

d)   Philo adv. Flaccum, ab init. p. 965. Hn.   This could indeed be estolled of the Essenes and Therapeutae.   See my comments on the question of Lawrie's History, pp. 344-348!

e)   Ascon. Paed. ad Cic. in Pis. p. 2063, pro Corn. p. 1312.   Hn.

f)   Dio Cassius L. 38, p. 66; Cic. in Pis. c. 4.   Asc. Paed. ad Cic. Pis. p. 263; Cic. pro domo, c. 5 und 33.   Cic. ad Q. Fratr. L. 3, ep. 3: L. 2. D. de coll. et corpp.   Hn.

g)   So were all called free inhabitants of the Roman Empire who were not Roman citizens.

a)   Rein. Inscr. Cl. I. p. 160. — Hn.

b)   Marcianus L. 5. §. 2. ff. de coll. et corpp.   Hn.

c)   Sueton. Jul. c. 42. August. c. 32.   Hn.
*

The concept of a College, according to Roman law, ^d) is far broader and more comprehensive than our present concepts of a guild, a craft, or a profession; it is rather completely independent from the purpose of the profession.   By Guild we understand a society of artisans and tradesmen in general, subordinate to the authority of the town or village where it is located, features which are not essential to the Roman concept of a College.
Because among the Romans, collegium generally means any society that come together for a particular purpose approved by the state, and recognized by the state as an independent society, as an independent higher (so-called moral) legal entity.
Hence the priests of all sorts and of every rank carry this name [College of]; for example, the College of Pontiffs, ^e) and the Arval Brethren, who made sacrifices for the fertility of the fields.
Therefore the Collegia =106= also enjoyed all the legal rights ^a) of every Society, Community. — Hence for a society to be a College, at least three members were required; ^b) but a single person could propagate the rights of a society or community (universitatis), and all the individual members could branch out anew without any legal disadvantage. ^c)   *

d)   Marcianus L. 1. D. de colleg. et corpp. Hn. (The contents of this passage follow below, where we speak of the administrative privileges of the Colleges.)

e)   According to Cicero, (Dom. 12th and Suet. Augustus) were called Pontifices the Augures, the seven Epulones and the quindecimviri, Priests of the College Maximo.   Conf. Cic. Famil. III, 10.

a)   From Dig. l. 3. t. 4, whatever the name of their community [universitatis], is the rightly valid concept of a community (of universitas), under which also is clearly visible as a subordinate concept of a Corporation or a Collegium, as expressly stated in the cited place (cap. I).   Every community (universitas) is considered to be just one person, whereby the individual does not come into question.   "The advocate of the Community intervenes on behalf of the community or universitas, not of the individual member; [ibid. c. 2.] if anything is due by the Community, it is not due by the individual, neither what is due to the Community is due to the individual."   [ibid. c. 7. §. 1.]   Each community has been granted all the rights of a commonwealth (reipublicae); because it says: [loc. cit. c. 1. §. 1.]   "But to those who are allowed to have the statutes of a college, of association, or whatever else they may called it, is absolutely proper, as for example to have a common treasury, and, if it is necessary in relation to the affairs of the stat, that anyone of them may act as advocate or agent."
The following passage from Sertorius Ursatus De notis Romanorum Commentarius [see Graevii Thes. Tom. XI!] contains some explanation of this.   "Collegium (Manutius.)   On the monuments, where mention is made of the craftsmen of Colleges. The ancients called Colleges the association of certain men, who practiced some trade, we by corruption call them Brotherhoods [according to Du Cange, the term Fraternities and Guild Brothers].   Since ancient times it was granted to the colleges to impose sanctions in civil cases.   C. E. Vizzanio de mandat. Princ. Amstel. 1658.   It is still today our custom that craftsmen can be brought to trial only before certain judges.   Such privileges, that is, that can be called in judgment only before certain judges (in civil cases) have been extended to farmers, to tenants and to servants of the houses of the emperors, and to colleges. I. fin. C de jurid. Omn. Judic."
Also in C.L. XI. t. XVIII. de collegiatis, etc., as members of particular colleges, were called Collegiati, those who, according to Cujac. comm. in 3rd postr. II. C. p. 307, were mainly fireguards, and assistants, among other things.

b)   D. l. 50. t. 16. c. 85. Marcellus libro I. Digestorum.   Neratius Priscus: three make up a college; and this shall be followed to a greater extent.   Hn.

c)   D. l. 3. t. 4. c. 7. §. 2.
*

Now, since the guilds of artisans, merchants, and artists, ^d) according to Numa's institution, also had their own liturgical practices, =107= festivals, and houses, ^a) so they appeared to the state under a twofold aspect of their artistic occupations and their social religious activities; and since they assembled for one purpose or another, their religious, mostly public, meetings were permitted, and their actual, mostly secret meetings, often dangerous to the existing government of the land, were denied them.   This distinction was actually made, because Marcianus expressly says: ^b) "But in order to gather for a religious purpose (religionis causa), they are not denied, as far as this is not contrary to the senate's decision forbidding unauthorized collegia."

d)   For Example, the College of the Flute Players (tibicinum), used especially in all sacrifices and magnificient parades.

a)   See previous p. 98!

b)   L. I. D. de Colleg. et corp.   Hn.

Hereby becomes apparent that all pagan, Jewish, and Christian religious societies differing from the national divine services of the Romans, as well as those which united in a secret divine service, which was an integral part of all the mysteries and initiations of pre-Christian times, and existing for other purposes of participation in intimate human association, gave to the state, which was actually averse to them as a whole, ^c) a desired opportunity to guard itself against them.   "So mentions ^d) an inscription of the College of the Egyptian gods Serapis and Isis.   For as soon as the veneration of these strange Egyptian gods secretly entered Rome, and several private persons had begun to consecrate temples to them, the Senate initially ordered them to be torn down. ^e)   Soon afterwards, they were again confirmed by the Auspices [Augurs], who foretold from the eating, the movements, and other expressions of the birds, then abolished anew, ^f) but finally, under Augustus, were introduced by state law; ^g)   since then, these worship practices have long flourished and have been practiced by many colleges dedicated to them." =108= Now, as it is evident from other passages of the Ancients and from inscriptions, ^a) the Collegia of Fabri and of other crafts were also accepted at the temples of these deities; ^b) so here appears a new point, by which it seems that the building corporations were probably in essential connection with the secret divine service, which constituted the essence of the mysteries.

c)   See Bynckershoekii diatribe on religious travelers.   Hn.

d)   Reines. Inscr. Cl. XIV, 171.   Hn.

e)   Dio Cassius L. 40, p. 142.   Hn.

f)   Dio Cass. L. XLII. p. 196.   Hn.

g)   Idem L. XLVII. p. 336.   Hn.

a)   See below the passage from Cuperi notis ad Lactantius!

b)   See what is said below about the dendrophori.

"The Jews, as ancient monuments and writers testify, had a similar fate.   Even when their state was still free, many members of that nation lived in Rome, and had their synagogue and college there. ^c)   Pompey had transplanted many prisoners of war from this people to Rome, who were later released, and formed a synagogue under the name of a synagogue of the freedmen.   Tacitus reports ^d) that more than 4,000 freed Jews lived in Rome.   Already under Caesar, and immediately after his death, the Jews knew that the right to form new Collegia by large sums of money, as even for the Romans, was not permitted to be obtained, neither in Rome and nor in the Provinces. ^e)   Even though under the Christian emperors they retained this freedom of religion, ^f) up to the year 393 after Jesus' birth. =109=

c)   This concludes Grotius from Cic. in relation to Cic. pro Flacco, c. 28, in relation to Act. Apost. c. 2. v. 10. Hn.   Probably the synagogues were permitted to them under the legal title of a religious College.

d)   Tacitus Ann. l. 2. c. 85.   Compare Book of the Apostles. c. VI. v. 9. and Basnage histoire des Juifs L. 7. ch. 8. §. 11.! seq.   Hn.

e)   Josephus histoire Ant. Jud. l. 14. c. 47; Tac. Ann. l. 3. c. 51; Jac. Gronov. decret. Rom. et Asiat. pro Judaeis etc. restituta, p. 2. et p. 6; Basnage loc. cit. l. 7. ch. 8. §. 6 and 8. p. 203 and 209, tomo 7; Philo adv. Flaccum; Tac. Ann. l. 2, c. 85; Jos. Ant. Jud. l. 18. c. 5; Philo legat. ad Cajun init; Dio Cassius l. 60, p. 669; Act. Apost. c. 18, v. 2; Sueton. Claudius, c. 25; Act. App. c. 28, v. 28, v. 19; Pers. Satir. V, v. 180. — Hn.

f)   L. 9. C. Theod. de Jud. caelic. et Sam; L. 12. L. 20. 21. ss. cod.   H. n.
*

"Even the first Christian communities sought to win the rights of the colleges and corporations; ^a) but they were less fortunate than the Jews.   Their religious meetings were counted among the unauthorized colleges and suspected private gatherings ^b) and prohibited with severe punishment, ^c) because their daily gathering and the celebration of the love-feast (Agape) made them suspicious and seemed dangerous." ^d)

a)   Several scholars (Lips. ad Tac. Ann. L. 15; Pithoeus, adversary 1, 2 c, 2, Barth. ad Rutil, Numant, Iiner, 1, v. 159) have shown that Jews and Christians have often been confused by the Romans and their writers.   Therefore one must be careful in this regard in the interpretation of Roman writers; for example, in the remarkable passage of Suetonius in (Claudius, chapter 25, 4), where it says: "Claudius drove out the Jews from Rome, who revolted by the instigation of Chrestus [shall mean: caused by the teaching of a man whom they call Christus], who always stirs up, (impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantes).   Hn.

b)   Plin. ep. X, 43. 94. 97. 76. Έταιϱειαις: that is the common religious meals of the colleges and corporations, as by the Cretans: άνδϱεια [prowess], with the Lacedemonians συσσιτια, at Naples φϱατϱιαι, at Athens ϰοινα έϱανιςων. (See Lawrie, in the cited places).   The emperors had severely proscribed these meals, in order to prevent any opportunity to rioting. Plin. l. 10. ep. 93 et 97.

c)   Plin. loc. cit. — Hn.

d)   Although Tertullianus (Apol. c. 38 et 39.) and Origenes (adv. Cels. l. 1. p. 5) as a result of this circumstance, in the opinion of the pagan authorities, cast upon them especially the most detrimental prejudice.

I have cited these circumstances about the religious corporations and colleges for this reason, because already here becomes apparent a point from which it is very probable that the doctrines and customs of the pagan philosophical schools, of the mysteries of various peoples, as well as of the Jewish religion and of the Essene-society, ^e) in particular, have already very early united with the doctrines and customs of the colleges and corporations of the craftsmen =110= and artists of the Roman Empire, and that this especially with the corporations of the builders, and of all the trades belonging to them, which had been the case because they were the strongest, and because they were employed at the most famous temples.   If someday knowledgeable men have researched in this respect the several languages and history of mankind, the Roman and especially the less well-read more recent Greek writers, and all the monuments of ancient time, then much more information can be expected.   Even in the writings on the history and laws of the guilds and professional and religious corporations may contain many particulars, for the research of which I lack the time. ^a)

e)   It is evident from Philo and Josephus that the Essenes also spread outside Judea and lived together in closed societies; but this was especially the case in Egypt.   See my remarks and historical evidence of the Essenes in the comments on Lawrie's History of Freemasonry, p. 344 ff.!

a)   But I have searched the main writings about this subject without any new gain; for example, Adr. Beyer de collegis opificum. 4. Tomi; Strauch de jure collegiorum opificum. Jenae 1669, and others — I have thoroughly examined Graevii Thes. Ant. Rom., as well as most writers of rer. Byzant; only the script. rer. Aug. I did not have time to do my research as planned.   In the Church Fathers there is nothing substantial about these subjects, as Bro. Feßler assures me, who has read them all.

"Nicht nur in Rom, sondern auch in den Freistädten (municipiis, Städten die das römische Bürgerrecht hatten,) und Kolonien, waren diese Kollegien und Korporationen eingeführt. =104= So wie in allen Provinzen viele Schulen der Redner und Grammatiker blühten, so wurden auch dort Künste und Handwerke eifrig betrieben.   Zum Beispiel, die Kollegien der Fabri, dendrophori, und centonari waren in Rom vorzüglich berühmt; und eben so blühten sie in den Provinzen. ^a)

"Bald aber bemerkte man, daß diese Kollegien und Korporationen dem Staate gefährlich wurden, indem sie leicht in Parteien und politische Klubbs ausarteten.   Besonders bedienten sich ihrer die Volktribunen, um ihre Absichten durchzusetzen. ^b)   Hierzu kamen noch die häufigen und unmässigen, dem Volke zur Unehre gereichenden, Gelage und Schmausereien derselben, welche die Kaiser vorzüglich bewogen haben mögen, mehre Kollegia aufzuheben. ^c)   Schon Varro klagt darüber, daß die unabänderlichen Gastereien der Kollegien das Getraide vertheuren.   Den Juden aber gestattete Augustus ihre Kollegia und Versammlungen, "als Schulen der Mäßigkeit und der Gerechtigkeit." ^d)   Auch Klaudius führt, nach Dio, die Unmäßigkeit der Kollegien mit als Grund an, weßhalb er sie aufhob.   Der erste Versuch, sie theilweis zu vernichten und auf die alten und unentbehrlichen zu beschränken, wurde im Jahr der Stadt 685 gemacht; ^e) allein acht Jahre darauf stellte sie der Volktribun Klodius wieder her, ^f) und beförderte es, daß Sclaven und ""überhaupt Menschen aus der niedrigsten Volkklasse Kollegia bilden durften.   Dass auch Fremde ^g) (peregrini) =105= zu Rom und in den Freistädten sich in Kollegia vereinten; lehrt eine Inschrift bei Reinesius; ^a) und selbst Sclaven konnten Dieß, mit Erlaubniß ihrer Herren, thun. ^b) — Unter den Kaisern wurden die Zünfte noch verhaßter; schon Julius Cäsar und Augustus hoben alle Zünfte, außer den von Alters her bestehenden, auf."   "Die meisten staatumwälzenden Parteien (revolutionären Factionen)," sagt Suetonius, ^c) "versammelten sich unter dem Titel eines neuen Kollegium zu fast jedem gewaltsamen, gesetzwidrigen Unternehmen.   Daher löste Angustus die Kollegia, außer den alten und gesetzmäßigen, auf."

a)   Grut. CCCL, 6; CCCCXCV, 5; CLXXV, 7; CCCIX, 8; CCCCLXXXI, 9; CCCCLXXXVI, 5; CLXXV, 3; Wolf. Laz. de Rep. Rom. Lib. XII, c. 4. P. 90.   Hn.

b)   Liv. l. 40, c. 51; Cic. pro domo, 5, 28, 32; Cic. qu. acad. 4, c. 47; pro Flacco, 8; Catil. 4, c. 8. Q. Cic. de petit. cons. c. 1. Asc. Paed. ad Cic. pro Milone p. 1319.   Hn.

c)   Cujac. L. VII. obs. 30. — Hn.   Obgleich solche Mahle, jedoch ohne Opfer und zu Zeiten öffentlicher Freude, gestatten blieben. C. l. 1, t. 11, c. 4.

d)   Philo adv. Flaccum, ab init. p. 965. Hn.   Dieß konnte von den Essenern und Therapeuten allerdings gerühmt werden.   Siehe meine Bemerkungen zu Lawrie's Geschichte d. Fr. S. 344 - 348!

e)   Ascon. Paed. ad Cic. in Pis. p. 2063, pro Corn. p. 1312.   Hn.

f)   Dio Cass. L. 38, p. 66; Cic. in Pis. c. 4.   Asc. Paed. ad Cic. Pis. p. 263; Cic. pro domo, c. 5 und 33.   Cic. ad Q. Fratr. L. 3, ep. 3: L. 2. D. de coll. et corpp.   Hn.

g)   So hießen alle freie Einwohner des römischen Reiches, welche nicht römische Bürger waren.

a)   Rein. Inscr. Cl. I. p. 160. — Hn.

b)   Marcianus L. 5. §. 2. ff. de coll. et corpp.   Hn.

c)   Sueton. Jul. c. 42. August. c. 32.   Hn.

Der Begriff eines Kollegium ist nach dem römischen Rechte ^d) weit allgemeiner und umfassender, als unsere heutigen Begriffe einer Zunft, eines Handwerks, oder einer Profession; er ist vielmehr von der Bestimmung des Gewerbes ganz unabhängig.   Wir verstehen unter Zunft eine städtisch oder dorflich angesessene, der städtischen oder dorflichen Ortobrigkeit untergebene Gesellschaft von Handwerkern und überhaupt Gewerbetreibenden, welche Merkmale alle bei dem römischen Begriffe eines Kollegium nicht wesentlich sind.   Denn bei den Römern bedeutet collegium im Allgemeinen jede Gesellschaft, welche sich zu einem bestimmten, vom Staate gebilligten Zwecke verbindet, und als eine selbständige Gesellschaft, als eine selbständige höhere (sogenannte moralische) Rechtperson vom Staate anerkannt wird.   Daher führen auch die Priester von allen Arten und von jedem Range diesen Namen, zum Beispiele die Pontifices, ^e) und die Fratres arvales, welche für die Fruchtbarkeit der Felder Opfer brachten.   Daher genossen auch die Kollegia alle einer jeden Gesellschaft, =106= Gemeinheit (Gemeine) zustehenden Rechte ^a) — Damit eine Gesellschaft ein Kollegium seyn konnte, waren wenigstens drei Mitglieder erforderlich; ^b) doch konnte ein Einziger die Rechte einer Gesellschaft oder Gemeinheit (universitatis) fortpflanzen, und alle einzelne Mitglieder konnten sich ohne Rechtnachtheil verneuen. ^c)

d)   Marcianus L. 1. D. de colleg. et corpp. Hn. (Der Inhalt dieser Stelle folgt weiter unten, wo wir von den Berechtigungen der Kollegien reden.)

e)   Nach Cic. Dom. 12. und Suet. August. 101. hießen die Pontifices, Augures, Semptemviri Epulones und Quindecemviri, Sacerdotes summorum collegiorum. Conf. Cic. Famil. III, 10.

a)   Aus Dig. l. 3. t. 4. quod universitatis eujuscunque nomine, ist der zu Recht gültige Begriff einer Gemeinheit (universitatis), worunter auch, als untergeordneter Begriff, der einer Korporation oder eines Kollegium, wie am angeführten Orte (cap. I.) ausdrücklich gesagt wird, gehört, deutlich zu ersehen.   Es wird nehmlich jede Gemeinheit (universitas) als nur Eine Person betrachtet, wobei die Einzelnen gar nicht in Frage kommen. "Actor universitatis pro republica vel universitate intervenit, non pro singulis; [ibid. c. 2.] si quid universitati debetur, singulis non debetur, nec quod debet universitas, singuli debent." [ibid. c. 7. §. 1.]   Einer jeden Gemeinheit wurden alle Rechte eines Gemeinwesens (reipublicae) zugestanden; denn es heißt: [loc. cit. c. 1. §. 1.]   "Quibus autem permissum est, corpus habere collegii, societatis, sive cujusque alterius eorum nomine, proprium est, ad exemplum Reipublicae habere res communes, arcam communen, et actorem sive syndicum, per quem, tamquam in Republica, quod communiter fieri oporteat, agatur, fiat."
Folgende Stelle aus Sertorius Ursatus de notis Romm. [v. Graevii Thes. Tom. XI !] enthält hierüber manche Erläuterung.   "Collegium (Manutius.)   In saxis, ubi artificum collegiorum mentio occurrit.   Collegia dixerunt antiqui societatem certorum hominum, artem aliquam factitantium, nos corrupte Frataleas [confer. du Cange voce fratria et Fratres de Gilda!] vocamus.   Collegiis istis in civilibus causis propriis uti sanctionibus concessum antiquitus fuit, ita observante.   C. E. Vizzanio de mandat. Princ. Amstel. 1658.   Mos apud nos quoque vigens, cum etiam sub certis judicibus tantummodo conveniri" [in jus vocari] "artifices possint.   Non dissimilia privilegia, quod scilicet coram certis tantummodo judicibus possent conveniri (in civilibus), sunt translata ad colonos, inquilinos et servos domorum imperatoris, et ad collegia. l.fin. C. de jurid. omn. judic."


Auch werden im C. L. XI. t. XVIII. de collegiatis etc. als Mitglieder bestimmter Kollegien, Collegiati genannt, welche, nach Cujac. comm. in 3. postr. II. c. p. 307. vorzüglich Feuerwächter, und Gehülfen, u. a. m. waren.

b)   D. l. 50. t. 16. c. 85. Marcellus libro I. Digestorum. Neratius Priscus tres facere existimat collegium, et hoc magis sequendum est.   Hn.

c)   D. l. 3. t. 4. c. 7. §. 2.

Da nun auch die Zünfte der Handwerker, Kaufleute und Künstler ^d) nach Numa's Einrichtung eigne gottesdienstliche =107= Gebräuche, Feste und Häuser hatten, ^a) so erschienen sie dem Staate unter einem doppelten Gesichtpunkte ihrer Kunstbeschäftigungen und ihrer geselligen religiösen Handlungen; und da sie sich sowohl zu dem einen, als zu dem andern Zwecke versammelten, so konnten ihnen ihre religiösen, meist öffentlichen, Versammlungen gestattet, ihre eigentlichen, meist geheimen und der bestehenden Landregierung oft gefährlichen, Zusammenkünfte versagt werden.   Diese Unterscheidung wurde wirklich gemacht; denn Marcianus sagt ausdrücklich: ^b) "Aber um eines religiösen Zweckes willen (religionis causa) sich zu versammeln, wird ihnen nicht verwehrt, insoweit Dieß nicht dem Senatbeschlusse zuwider ist, welcher unerlaubte Kollegia verbietet."

d) z. B. das Kollegium der, vorzüglich bei allen Opfern und Prachtaufuzugen gebrauchten, Flötenbläser (tibicinum).

a)   Siehe vorhin S. 98!

b)   L. I. D. de Colleg. et corp.   Hn.

Hierdurch zeigte sich also allen, von den vaterländischen Götterdienste der Römer abweichenden, heidnischen, jüdischen und christlichen Religiongesellschaften, so wie Denen, die sich zu einem geheimen Gottesdienste, welcher ein wesentlicher Theil aller Mysterien und Einweihungen der vorchristlichen Zeit war, verbanden, eine erwünschte Gelegenheit, dem Staate, der ihnen eigentlich insgesamt abgeneigt war, ^c) Schutz, und schon zu andern Zwecken bestehenden innigen Menschenvereinen Theilnahme, abzugewinnen.   "So wird in einer Inschrift ^d) ein Kollegium der egyptischen Götter Serapis und Isis erwähnt.   Denn sobald die Verehrung dieser fremden egyptischen Götter heimlich in Rom Eingang gefunden, und mehrere Privatleute ihnen Tempel zu weihen angefangen hatten, befahl der Senat zuerst, sie einzureißen. ^e)   Bald darauf wurden sie von den Auspices, welche aus dem Fressen, den Bewegungen und andern Aeußerungen der Vögel wahrsagten, wieder bestätigt, dann auf's Neue aufgehoben, ^f) endlich aber, unter Augustus, staatgesetzlich eingeführt; ^g) seit welcher Zeit dann diese gottesdienstlichen Gebräuche lange blühten, und von vielen ihnen sich widmenden Kollegien geübt wurden." =108=   Da nun, wie aus andern Stellen der Alten und aus Inschriften erhellet, ^a) bei den Tempeln dieser Gottheiten auch Kollegia der Fabri und anderer Gewerke angenommen wurden; ^b) so zeigt sich hier ein neuer Punkt, wo wahrscheinlich auch die Baukorporationen mit dem geheimen Gottesdienste, welcher das Wesentliche der Mysterien ausmachte, in wesentlichem Vereine standen.

c)   Siehe Bynckershoekii diatriba de sacris peregrinis.   Hn.

d)   Reines. Inscr. Cl. XIV, 171.   Hn.

e)   Dio Cassius L. 40, p. 142.   Hn.

f)   Dio Cass. L. XLII. p. 196.   Hn.

g)   Idem L. XLVII. p. 336.   Hn.

a)   Siehe weiter unten die Stelle aus Cuperi notis ad Lactant!

b)   Siehe, was weiter unten über die dendrophori erwähnt wird.

"Die Juden hatten, wie alte Denkmale und Schriftsteller bezeugen, ein ähnliches Loos.   Schon als der Staat derselben noch frei war, lebten sehr viele Mitglieder dieser Nation in Rom, und hatten daselbst ihre Synagoge und ihr Kollegium. ^c)   Pompejus hatte viele Krieggefangne aus diesem Volke mit sich nach Rom verpflanzt, welche späterhin freigelassen wurden, und eine Synagoge unter dem Namen einer Synagoge der Freigelassenen bildeten.   Tacitus meldet, ^d) daß mehr als 4000 freigelassene Juden zu Rom wohnten.   Die Juden wußten durch große Geldsummen schon unter Cäsar, und gleich nach dessen Tode, das Recht der Kollegien, als selbst Römern, neue Kollegia zu bilden, nicht gestattet wurde, zu Rom und in den Provinzen ^e) zu erlangen.   Selbst unter den christlichen Kaisern behielten sie diese Religionsfreiheit, ^f) noch in dem Jahre 393 nach Jesu Geburt." =109=

c)   Dies schließt Grotius aus Cic. pro Flacco, c. 28, in Beziehung auf Act. Apost. c. 2. v. 10. Hn.   Wahrscheinlich wurden die Synagogen ihnen blos unter dem Rechttitel eines religiösen Kollegium gestattet.

d)   Tacitus Ann. l. 2. c. 85.   Vergleiche Apostelgesch. c. VI. v. 9. und Basnage histoire des Juifs l. 7. ch. 8. §. 11.! seq.   Hn.

e)   Josephus histoire Ant. Jud. l. 14. c. 47; Tac. Ann. l. 3. c. 51; Jac. Gronov. decret. Rom. et Asiat. pro Judaeis etc. restituta, p. 2. et p. 6; Basnage loc. cit. l. 7. ch. 8. §. 6 und 8. p. 203 und 209, tomo 7; Philo adv. Flaccum; Tac. Ann. l. 2, c. 85; Jos. Ant. Jud. l. 18. c. 5; Philo legat. ad Cajun init; Dio Cassius l. 60, p. 669; Act. Apost. c. 18, v. 2; Sueton. Claudius, c. 25; Act. App. c. 28, v. 28, v. 19; Pers. Satir. V, v. 180. — Hn.

f)   L. 9. C. Theod. de Jud. caelic. et Sam; L. 12. L. 20. 21. ss. cod.   H. n.

"Auch die ersten christlichen Gemeinen suchten die Rechte der Kollegien und Korporationen zu gewinnen; ^a) allein sie waren hierin minder glücklich, als die Juden. Ihre gottverehrlichen Zusammenkünfte wurden den unerlaubten Kollegien und verdächtigen Privatzusammenkünften ^b) beigezählt und bei schwerer Strafe verboten, ^c) weil ihr tägliches Versammeln und die Feier des Liebemahles (der Agape) sie verdächtig machte und gefährlich erscheinen ließ. ^d)

a)   Mehrere Gelehrte (Lips. ad Tac. Ann. l. 15; Pithoeus advers. l. 2. c. 2; Barth. ad Rutil. Numant. itiner. l. 1. v. 159.) haben gezeigt, daß Juden und Christen von den Römern und deren Schriftstellern häufig verwechselt worden sind.   Daher muß man in dieser Hinsicht bei Auslegung römischer Schriftsteller sorgfältig seyn; z. B. bei der merkwürdigen Stelle des Suetonius (Claudius, c. 25), wo es heißt: "Klaudius vertrieb die Juden, welche, auf Antrieb des Chrestus [soll wohl heißen: veranlaßt durch die Lehre eines Mannes, den sie Chrestus nennen,] immer Aufruhr erregten, (impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantes,) aus Rom."   Hn.

b)   Plin. ep. X, 43. 94. 97. 76. Έταιϱειαις: das ist den gemeinsamen religiösen Mahlzeiten der Kollegien und Korporationen, wie bei den Kretern: άνδϱεια, bei den Lacedämoniern συσσιτια, zu Neapel φϱατϱιαι, zu Athen ϰοινα έϱανιςων. (S. Lawrie, a. a. O.)   Diese Mahlzeiten hatten die Kaiser, um alle Gelegenheit zu Aufruhr abzuschneiden, schwer verpönt. Plin. l. 10. ep. 93 et 97.

c)   Plin. loc. cit. — Hn.

d)   Obgleich Tertullianus (Apol. c. 38 et 39.) und Origenes (adv. Cels. l. 1. p. 5) deßhalb gründlich vertheidigen, so gereichte ihnen doch dieser Umstand in der Meinung der heidnischen Obrigkeiten vorzüglich zum Nachtheile.

Ich habe diese Umstände über die religiösen Korporationen und Kollegien deßhalb angeführt, weil sich schon hier ein Punkt zeigt, aus welchem betrachtet, es sehr wahrscheinlich wird, daß sich die Lehren und die Gebräuche der heidnischen philosophischen Schulen, der Mysterien verschiedener Völker, so wie auch der jüdischen Religion und der Essener - Gesellschaft ^e) insbesondere, mit den Lehren und den Gebräuchen der Kollegien und Korporationen der Handwerker =110= und Künstler des römischen Reiches sehr frühe schon vereiniget haben, und daß Dieß vorzüglich mit den Korporationen der Bauleute, und aller zu ihnen gehörigen Gewerke, der Fall gewesen sei, weil diese die stärksten, und weil sie bei den berühmtesten Tempeln angestellt waren.   Wenn einst mehrere der Sprachen und der Menschheitgeschichte kundige Männer die römischen und besonders die weniger gelesenen jüngeren griechischen Schriftsteller, und sämtliche Denkmäler der alten Zeit, in dieser Hinsicht werden durchforscht haben, dann ist hierüber noch mancher Aufschluß zu erwarten.   Auch in den Schriften über die Geschichte und Rechte der Zünfte und kunstlichen und religiösen Korporationen mag noch manches Einzelne enthalten seyn, welches aufzusuchen mir es an Zeit gebricht. ^a)

e)   Aus Philo und Josephus erhellet, daß sich die Essener auch außerhalb Judäa ausbreiteten, und in geschloßnen Gesellschaften zusammen lebten; vorzüglich aber war Dieß in Egypten der Fall.   Siehe meine Bemerkungen und geschichtlichen Nachweise über die Essener in den Bemerkungen zu Lawrie's Gesch. d. Fr. Br., S. 344, ff.!

a)   Doch habe ich die Hauptschriften über diesen Gegenstand ohne alle neue Ausbeute durchsucht; z. B. Adr. Beyer de collegis opificum. 4. Tomi; Strauch de jure collegiorum opificum, Jenae 1669, und andere — Graevii Thes. Ant. Rom. habe ich ganz durchmustert, so wie die meisten scriptores rer. Byzant; nur die script. rer. Aug. hatte ich nicht Zeit planmässig ganz durchzuforschen.   In den Kirchenvätern ist über diese Gegenstände nichts Erhebliches befindlich, wie mich Br. Feßler versichert, welcher sie sämtlich gelesen.

To begin with, some information about the fate of the colleges and corporations under the emperors! — "Claudius dissolved the Collegia founded by Caligula." ^b)   Hadrian especially built a great deal, and therefore sought to encourage the architects.   "His predecessor, Trajan, very strictly forbade private gatherings, and the communal meals (Hetariae) thereof, and never permitted the establishment of new Colleges in the provinces, not even a College of wood, stone and metal workers (fabrorum) recommended by Pliny for Nicomedia to quench the fiery fires. ^c)   These principles appear to have been acted upon also by the following emperors; at least Marcus Antoninus philosophus and Lucius Verus (Antoninus Brother, and co-emperor), and afterwards Severus, limited the liberties of the colleges." =111=

b)   Dio Cassius. 9, p. 669.   Hn.

b)   Plin. epp. l. 10. ep. 92. 93. 97.   Hn.

d)   S. D. l. c. de colleg. et Corp.   Hn.
*

"But the Roman emperors did not banish all the collegia from Rome, Italy, and the Provinces, but some which were indispensable to the city; ^a) were expressly exempted, others also by a special council decision (senatus consultum) were granted the permission, (coeundi facultas) to assemble. ^b)   Therefore, several colleges boast inscriptions of this permission. ^c)   When, since Constantine the Great, the Christian religious concept of had become the dominant one, only the sacrifices, and generally the pagan customs, were actually abolished, the temples closed, but not generally destroyed; the gathering Collegia were still allowed to have communal meals, only without the sacrificial customs introduced since Numa. ^d) And when the newly established jealousy fomented discord in the state power, the later emperors themselves permitted the emergence of new colleges and corporations, and indeed the more frequently the closer they were to the downfall of the empire.   This did list for example Alexander Severus. ^a)   Tarruntenus Paternus, who lived under the emperor Commodus =112= (from the years 180 to 192 after Christ), ^a) for the times of this emperor the following 30 trade corporations (opificum corpora)." ^b)

a)   See below the passage from Symmachi epp. ad. Div. about the indispensability of the colleges!

b)   Marcianus L. 5. §. 3. D. eodem; Cajus L. 1. pr. D. quod cujuscunque univ. nomine.   Hn.

c)   "The college of Roman dendrophori, permitted by Senatus Consultum resolution." (Gruter Inscriptions, p. 175. 8.) — "of Surveyors mach., permitted by S. C. resolution." (Id. Ibid.)   "Merchants of vines and all merchandises at York legitimately assembled."   Lazius de rep. rom. l. 12, c. 4. p. 900. — Hn.

d)   The 11th title of the first book of the Codex gives full information about this.   In general, the Christian emperors were generally not hostile to ancient architecture, and to the other fine works of art of pagan times; but it was the Fathers of the African Church assembly who wanted to know destroyed the ornaments on public works, as far as they contained mythological subjects. (See on this Müller de genio aevi Theodosiani p. 2 sub f!) The section mentioned in the Codex (especially c.4) proves that the secret celebration of the Mysteries was also forbidden by law, whereas ordinary exoteric festivities were allowed to continue.   The Pagans were no longer allowed to worship freely.   (C. loc. cit. cap. 10. non doceant pagani qualemounque doctrinam. Br.)

e)   Ael. Lampr. Alex. Sev. c. 33.   Hn. =112=

a)   L. 6. D. de jure immunit. Bertrand de Iurispr. l. 1, c. 22. p. 166; Grot. Vit. Jurec. l. 2. c. 11. §. 4.   Hn.

b)   D. 50, tit. 6. §. 6.   Hn.
*

"VI. Tarruntenus Paternus in the first book of War Matters.   For some, their status and occupation have provided relief from the heavier state burdens (forced labor); belong there ^c) the surveyors, ^d) the assistants, ^e) (adjutants) (medical orderly, the physicians, the capsule makers, ^{f) g)} the diggers, the cattle doctors, the architect, ^h) the helmsmen, the shipbuilders, the ballista-makers, ⁱ⁾ =113= the miners, ^a) the wood and metalworkers, the arrow makers, the bronze smiths, ^b) bricklayers, ^c) cartwrights, helmet smiths, roofers, ^d) swordsmen, well-digger, ^e) (well finder), trumpet makers, bow makers, ^f) lead workers, ironworkers, stonebreakers, lime makers, wood-cutters, and makers of coal: there are also count further the meat-cutters, hunters, slaughterers of sacrificial animals, assistants at the arsenal (armory), and the orderlies, the accountants from which one receives council, the accountants of the cereals [grains], of the deposits and of what is owed to the Treasury, the wingmen, (the helpers of the jailers,) the foragers and weapon-polishers, ^g) the weapon-guards, the herald and the trumpeter; these all are counted among the freed-men." =114=

c)   "All the following artists are not common craftsmen, but, as the heading of this law shows, artists employed by the army, suchlike very many followed the army." (Note of Gothofredus.)

d)   Either cereal allocators, or those that measure the camp by stepping.   Vitruvius. 2, 7; Leo de bell. app. c. 7.   (Note by. Gothofredus.)

e)   Perhaps it is called optio valetudinarii, assistants of the medical orderly, or at the lazaret [military hospital].   According to Reinesius (Synt. Inscr., pp. 11-15),they are field surgeons and caretakers of the wounded.   Perhaps optio valeitudinarii is the Overseer of the lazaret.

f)   "Capsarii, which I believe to be the packers who made the chests to store the equipment." le Beau de la Legion Romaine, mem. 19.   (Mem. de Literature de l'Academie der Inscript. T. XXXVII)

g)   Vulgate: capsarii artifices [Box-makers].   Books, clothes, bills etc. were kept in boxes; smaller ones were carried in hands.

h)   Vulgate Architects.   It should perhaps be said architectus, because usually only one architect presided over the same building or was employed by a legion.

i)   Ballistari. Hal. Vallistrarii. [Ballistae or Crossbow makers.]

a)   i. e. cunicularii. [Engineers] 2 Veget. 11. in fin.

b)   Bacularii, builders, craftsmen Gothofr; vulgate bractearii, generally, workers of thin plate of metal; others bacularii, who fashioned the metal work on the helmets.

c)   Structores, see aedificatores [builders of structures]. Building Art, οιϰοδομιϰη, τεϰτονιϰη, structorum ministri sunt vectiari, lapicidae, scalptores. (Gothofr.)

d)   le Beau mem. 19. on the Roman Legion.

e)   Aquilices [hydraulic engineers]; conf. managing the walls. jur. Civ. c. 41.

f)   Alii archarii [other chest-makers], likely from archa, i. e. chests.

g)   Gothofr. poliones (who polish weapons); alii: pelliones, polliciones, pollutatores.

One hundred years later, Constantine ^a) mentions, in part, and perhaps only in name, several of the various corporations just quoted, in the following laws, the whole content of which is instructive for our investigation. —

a)   C. L. X. t. 64. de excus. Artif.
*

Zunächst noch einige Nachrichten über die Schicksale der Kollegien und Korporationen unter den Kaisern! — "Klaudius löste die von Kaligula gestifteten Kollegia wieder auf." ^b)   Vorzüglich viel ließ Hadrianus bauen, und suchte deßhalb die Architecten aufzumuntern.   "Sein Vorfahr, Trajanus, verbot die Privatzusammenkünfte, und die Mahlzeiten auf denselben, (Hetärien,) sehr streng, und gestattete nie die Errichtung neuer Kollegien in den Provinzen, selbst nicht einmal ein von Plinius für Nicomedien zum Stillen der Feuerbrünste empfohlenes Kollegium der Holz - Stein - und Metallarbeiter (fabrorum). ^c)   Diesen Grundsätzen scheinen auch die folgenden Kaiser gemäß gehandelt zu haben; wenigstens beschränkten auch Marcus Antoninus philosophus und L. Verus (divi Fratres), und hernach Severus, die Freiheiten der Kollegien." =111=

b)   Dio Cassius. 9, p. 669.   Hn.

b)   Plin. epp. l. 10. ep. 92. 93. 97.   Hn.

d)   S. D. l. c. de colleg. et Corp.   Hn.

"Doch verbannten die römischen Kaiser nicht alle Kollegia aus Rom, Italien und den Provinzen, sondern einige, welche der Stadt unentbehrlich waren, ^a) wurden ausdrücklich ausgenommen, anderen auch durch einen besondern Rathbeschluss (senatus consultum) die Erlaubniß, sich versammeln zu dürfen, (coëundi facultas) ertheilt. ^b)   Daher rühmen sich mehrere Kollegien auf Inschriften dieser Erlaubniß. ^c)   Als, seit Konstantin dem Großen , der christliche Religionbegriff der herrschende geworden war, wurden eigentlich blos die Opfer, und überhaupt die heidnischen Gebräuche, aufgehoben, die Tempel geschlossen, nicht im Allgemeinen zerstört; die sich versammelnden Kollegia durften noch Mahlzeiten halten, nur ohne die seit Numa eingeführten Opfergebräuche. ^d)   Und wenn gleich vorzüglich die neuerrichteten die Eifersucht der Staatgewalt erregten, so gestatteten doch die späteren Kaiser selbst das Entstehen neuer Kollegien und Korporationen, und zwar um so öfter, je näher sie dem Untergange des Reiches waren.   Dieß that z. B. Alexander Severus. ^e)   Tarruntinus Paternus, der unter dem Kaiser Commodus =112= (vom J. 180. - J. 192. nach Christo) lebte, ^a) zählt für die Zeiten dieses Kaisers folgende 30 Korporationen der Gewerke (opificum corpora) auf." ^b)

a)   Siehe unten die Stelle aus Symmachi epp. ad. Div. über die Unentbehrlichkeit der Kollegien!

b)   Marcianus L. 5. §. 3. D. eodem; Cajus L. 1. pr. D. quod cujuscunque univ. nomine.   Hn.

c)   "Collegium dendrophororum roman. quibus ex S. C. coire licet." (Gruter Inscr. p. 175. 8.) — "Mensoribus mach. quibus ex S. C. coire licet." (Id. ibid.)   "Negociatores vinarii et omnia corpora Lugduni licite coeuntia."   Lazius de rep. rom. l. 12, c. 4. p. 900. — Hn.

d)   Hierüber giebt der 11te Titel des 1sten Buches des Codex vollen Aufschluß. Überhaupt waren die christlichen Kaiser der alten Baukunst, und den übrigen schönen Kunstwerken der heidnischen Vorzeit, im Allgemeinen nicht feindlich; wohl aber die Väter der afrikanischen Kirchenversammlung, welche die ornamenta publicorum operum, so fern sie mythologische Gegenstände enthielten, zerstört wissen wollten.   (Siehe hierüber Müller de genio aevi Theodosiani p. 2. sub f!)   Der erwähnte Abschnitt im Codex (vorzüglich c. 4.) beweist, daß auch die geheime Feier der Mysterien gesetzlich untersagt war, die dabei gewöhnlichen exoterischen Festlichkeiten hingegen fortgesetzt werden durften.   Die Heiden durften nicht mehr frei ehren.   (C. loc. cit. cap. 10. non doceant pagani qualemounque doctrinam. Br.)

e)   Ael. Lampr. Alex. Sev. c. 33.   Hn. =112=

a)   L. 6. D. de jure immunit. Bertrand de Iurispr. l. 1, c. 22. p. 166; Grot. Vit. Jurec. l. 2. c. 11. §. 4.   Hn.

b)   D. 50, tit. 6. §. 6.   Hn.

"VI. Tarruntenus Paternus im ersten Buche von Kriegsachen.   Einigen hat ihr Stand und Beruf eine Befreiung von den schwereren Staatlasten (Zwangarbeiten) verschafft; dahin gehören ^c) die Meßkünstler, ^d) die Gehülfen, ^e) (Adjutanten) (Krankenpfleger, die Aerzte, die Kapselmacher, ^{f) g)} die Grabenmacher, die Viehärzte, der Architect, ^h) die Steuermänner, die Schiffbauleute, die Ballistenmacher, ⁱ⁾ =113= die Mineurs, ^a) die Holz und Metallarbeiter, die Pfeilmacher, die Erzarbeiter, ^b) Maurer, ^c) Wagner, Helmschmiedte, Schindeldecker, ^d) Schwerdtfechter, Brunnengraber, ^e) (Brunnensucher), Trommetenmacher, Bogenmacher, ^f) Bleiarbeiter, Eisenarbeiter, Steinbrecher, die Kalkbereiter, die Holzhauer und Kohlenbrenner: eben dahin werden ferner gezählt die Fleischhauer, Jäger, Opferschlächter, die Gehülfen bei dem Arsenal (Waffenfabrik), und die Krankenwärter, die Rechnungsführer bei denen man sich Rathes erholt, die Rechnungführer, des Getraidewesens, der Depositen und des an dem Fiscus Verfallenen, die Flügelmänner, (die Gehülfen der Kerkermeister,) die Furiere und Waffenpolirer, ^g) die Waffenwächter, der Herold und der Trompeter; diese Alle werden zu den Befreieten gerechnet." =114=

c)   "Alle folgende Künstler sind nicht gemeine Handwerker, sondern, wie die Überschrift dieses Gesetzes zeigt, bei der Armee angestellte Künstler, dergleichen sehr Viele der Armee folgten."   (Anmerkung des Gothofredus.)

d)   Entweder Getraidezumesser, oder Solche, die durch Schreiten das Lager abmessen.   Vitruv. 2, 7; Leo de bell. app. c. 7. (Anm. Gothofr.)

e)   Vielleicht heißt es optio valetudinarii, Gehülfen der Krankenwärter, oder beim Lazarethe.   Nach Reinesius (Synt. Inscr. p. 11 - 15) sind es Feldchirurgen und Pfleger der Blessirten.   Vielleicht heißt optio valeitudinarii der Aufseher über das Lazareth.

f)   "Capsarii que je crois etre les layetiers qui fesoient les coffres pour renfermer les equipages." le Beau de la Legion Romaine, mem. 19.   (Mem. de Literature de l'Academie der Inscript. T. XXXVII)

g)   Vulgo: capsarii artifices.   In capsis wurden Bücher, Kleider, Rechnungen etc. aufbewahrt; kleinere wurden in Händen getragen.

h)   Vulg. architecti.   Es heißt vielleicht hier architectus, weil in der Regel nur Ein Architect demselben Baus vorstand, oder bei einer Legion angestellt war.

i)   Ballistari. Hal. Vallistrarii.

a)   i. e. cunicularii. 2 Veget. 11. in fin.

b)   Bacularii structores Gothofr; vulgo bractearii, structores; alii bacularii, welche die Metallarbeit an den Helmen fertigen.

c)   Structores, s. aedificatores. Ars structoria, οιϰοδομιϰη, τεϰτονιϰη, structorum ministri sunt vectiari, lapicidae, scalptores. (Gothofr.)

d)   le Beau mem. 19. sur la legion Romaine.

e)   Aquilices; conf. Menage a moen. jur. Civ. c. 41.

f)   Alii archarii, quasi ab archa, i.e. arca.

g)   Gothofr. poliones (qui arma poliunt); others: pelliones, polliciones, pollutatores.

Hundert Jahre später nennt Konstantinus ^a) mehrere, zum Theil, und zwar vielleicht blos dem Namen nach, von den so eben angeführten verschiedene Korporationen, in folgenden Gesetze, dessen ganzer Inhalt für unsere Untersuchung lehrreich ist. —

a)   C. L. X. t. 64. de excus. Artif.

Chapter LXIV.

Of the Artists' Exemptions.
The Emperor Constantine August the Great.

The artists who practice the arts briefly mentioned here, and now and then reside in the cities, we order to be freed from all state burdens, that they may have leisure for learning the arts, and may endeavor even more skillfully to instruct their sons. ^b)   Given on the 5th of August, under the consulate of Felicianus and Titianus, AD 337.

The following ^c) is the directory. — architects, physicians, ^d) painters, sculptors, marble workers, palanquin makers, ^a) =115= or chests-makers, ^b) locksmiths, ^c) chariot makers or stonemasons, which in Greek are called πηϰτας, ^d) masons, that is construction workers, ^e) wood carvers, mosaic-workers, goldsmiths, whitewashers, ^f) (plaster workers), whom the Greeks call ϰονιατας, silversmiths, gold-weavers, ^{g) h)} pearl and gemstone workers (according to others: those who fashion embossed metalwork,) bronze-smiths, bronze-founders, maker of small statues and signet rings, ⁱ⁾ factory workers, ^k) trousers makers, ordinary surveyors, ^l) plumbers, ^m) =116= potters, in Greek ϰεϱαμεις, gold worker, goldsmith, glassworker, ^(a) lead worker, ^(b)mirror makers, ^(c)ivory worker, leather worker, ^(d)dyer, chariot-makers, ^(e)house painter, white dyer, ^(f) (perhaps plaster worker,) linen worker, (ropemaker,) ^(g)maker of the three-horse carriages, ^(h) coachmans, gold-beaters, that is πεταλεϱϒοι. ⁽ⁱ⁾

b)   The sons of the publicly employed artists had to again devote themselves to the same art, for example, the sons of an armorer had to practice this craft. S. C. L. XI. tit. 9!

c)   See about all these artists especially: Pancirollus adpend. ad notitiam imp. occid. p. 21. ss. Cujacius in comment. ad 3 postr. libr. C. Col. Agr. 1578, p. 233. ss. Gothofredus in notis ad Corp. Juris Cic.

d)   Medici.   Cujacius wants to read mediaci, which term indicates a kind of woodworker, who worked the heartwood for interior and finer house ornaments, and were related to the carpenters and house decorators (intestinariis).

a)   Cod. G. reads lectari (bed-makers), or laccari (well digger).   According to Pancirollus, they are palanquin-makers; according to le Beau (1. c) Morticians (glossary νεϰϱοφοϱοι) In. Malvas. Marm. Fels. sect. 2. p. 70. occurs: Lecticarius [coffin-bearer] of Legion XI [X] Fretensis.

b)   Treasurer. See Gesneri thes. voce arcarius.

c)   Ibidem voce clavicularis [Bearers].   Elsewhere they are also called clavicularii, clavidarii.   This word also means Jailer, ϑεσμοφυλαξ.   Cujac. Some codexes. read cavidarii.   Compare l. 56. βασιλιϰων ad. l. 12. inf. de cohort.

d)   Cujac. λιϑοϑηϰτας, Stone Mason. According to others λιϑοβηϰτας, stonecutter. (S. B. I. S. 585!)

e)   Builders, who erect walls with stones and limestone. v. Palladius l. 9. c. 11. confer. Vitruv. l. 8. c. 7.

f)   Also called albarii [Plasterer]. (Tertull. de idololatr. c. 8)

g)   Barbaricari, i. e. qui ex auro coloratis filis exprimunt hominum formas et animalium.   Serv. ad Virg. Aen. XI.   They also made gold and silver ornaments on the helmets.

h)   In Cod. Theod. is found also: scasores; maybe scansores or stratores (ceiling or roof maker).

i)   Generally woodcutters.

k)   Perhaps is meant craftsmen who works in Fabricis publicis [in the public armories].

l)   Perhaps perticari, common surveyors who used the measuring rod (pertica).

m)   Probably related to aquae [water], so that it means: water-balancers, Plumbers =116=

(a)   Window glaziers, ύελόϑϒοι.

(b)   Plumbari; the Greeks and the ancient manuscripts read: plumarii, Sticker. Gujac.

(c)   Specularii, σφετλοποιοι [harvesters].

(d)   These also prepared the skins, which were stretched over the tents, under which the soldiers kept winter storage.

(e)   Actually, carpentum means a magnificent two-wheeled carriage; later, however, also manure wagons occur.   See Gesneri thesaurus. H. v.   According to Cujacius here means carpenta [carts] σαϒματα των ϰαμηλων, camel's saddle, clitellae camelorum; because in Basilicis is σαϒματοποιοι.   But, according to Festus, is also called clitellae a kind of projectile.

(f)   Are these albini [white washers], or gypsoplastae [platerers]? de quibus Caasiod. V. v. 5.

(g)   Cujac. cusores linarii, των λιναϱιων ϰνηςαι, who forge linen. Codex G. cusores signarii.

(h)   Others read: tignarii, Carpenters.

(i)   There are still other manuscripts mentioning: intestinarii, house [interior] ornaments; [the Romans called the internal ornament of the houses intestina; Vitruvius. IV, 4; V, 2; VI, 3.] tessellarii, who make the paneled work in the houses; and other. — The readings are very different in these passages and still very corrupted; their correction, which I consider very possible, would exceed the intent of this disquisition.
*

Tit. LXIV.

Von den Befreiungen der Künstler.
Der Kaiser Konstantinus A. an den Maximus.

Die Künstler, welche die hier unten kurz benannten Künste treiben, und sich hin und wieder in den Städten aufhalten, befehlen wir von allen Staatlasten zu befreien: auf daß sie zu Erlernung der Künste hinlängliche Muße haben, und sich destomehr bestreben mögen, selbst geschickter zu werden, und ihre Söhne ^b) zu unterweisen.   Gegeben am 5ten Aug. unter dem Konsulate des Felicianus und Titianus, 337.

Folgendes ^c) ist das Verzeichniß. — Architekten, Ärzte, ^d) Maler, Bildhauer, Marmorarbeiter Senstensträger, ^a) =115= oder Kassirer, ^b) Schlosser, ^c) Wagener oder Steinmetzen, welche griechisch πηϰτας ^d) heißen, Maurer, das ist Bauleute, ^e) Holzschnitzer, Musivarbeiter, Vergolder, Tüncher, ^f) (Stukkaturarbeiter), welche die Griechen ϰονιατας nennen, Silberarbeiter, Goldsticker, ^{g) h)} Perlen - und Edelsteinarbeiter (nach Andern: die getriebene Metallarbeit fertigen,) Erzarbeiter, Erzgießer, Verfertiger kleiner Bildsäulen und Siegelringe, ⁱ⁾ in den Fabriken Angestellte, ^k) Beinkleidermacher, gewöhnliche Feldmesser, ^l) Wasserwäger, ^m) =116= Töpfer, auf Griechisch ϰεϱαμεις, Goldarbeiter, Goldschmiedte, Glasarbeiter, ^(a) Bleiarbeiter, ^(b) Spiegelarbeiter, ^(c) Elfenbeinarbeiter, Fellarbeiter, ^(d) Färber, Wagner, ^(e) Anstreicher, Weißfärber, ^(f) (vielleicht Stukkaturarbeiter,) Leinarbeiter, (Seiler,) ^(g) Verfertiger der dreispännigen Wagen, ^(h) Kaleschenkutscher, Goldschläger, das ist πεταλεϱϒοι. ⁽ⁱ⁾

b)   Die Söhne der öffentlich angestellten Künstler sollten wieder derselben Kunst sich widmen, z. B. die Söhne der Fabricensium mußten Dieß. S. C. L. XI. tit. 9!

c)   Siehe über alle diese Künstler vorzüglich: Pancirollus adpend. ad notitiam imp. occid. p. 21. ss. Cujacius in comment. ad 3 postr. libr. C. Col. Agr. 1578, p. 233. ss. Gothofredus in notis ad Corp. Juris Cic.

d)   Medici.   Cujacius will mediaci lesen, welcher Ausdruck eine Art Holzarbeiter anzeigt, die das Kernholz bearbeiteten zu inneren und zwar feineren Hausverzierungen, und mit den Zimmerleuten und Hausverzierern (intestinariis) verwandt waren.

a)   Cod. G. liest lectari (Bettmacher), aut laccari (Brunnengräber).   Nach Pancirollus sind es Senftenmacher; nach le Beau (1. c) Todtenbestatter (Glossae νεϰϱοφοϱοι)   In. Malvas. Marm. Fels. sect. 2. p. 70. kommt vor: Lecticarius legionis XI. Fretensis.

b)   Schatzmeister. S. Gesneri thes. voce arcarius.

c)   Ibidem voce clavicularis. Sonst heißen sie auch clavicularii, clavidarii.   Auch bedeutet dieß Wort Kerkermeister, ϑεσμοφυλαξ.   Cujac. Einige Codd. lesen cavidarii.   Conf. l. 56. βασιλιϰων ad. l. 12. inf. de cohort.

d)   Cujac. λιϑοϑηϰτας, Steinglätter. Nach Andern λιϑοβηϰτας, Steinformer. (S. B. I. S. 585!)

e)   Structores, die aus Steinen und Kalk Mauern errichten. v. Palladius l. 9. c. 11. confer. Vitruv. l. 8. c. 7.

f)   Qui et dicuntur albarii. (Tertull. de idololatr. c. 8)

g)   Barbaricari, i. e. qui ex auro coloratis filis exprimunt hominum formas et animalium.   Serv. ad Virg. Aen. XI.   Auch machten sie Gold- und Silberzierathen an die Helme.

h)   In Cod. Theod. steht hier noch: scasores; vielleicht scansores oder stratores (Deckenmacher).

i)   Al. lignarii.

k)   Vielleicht so viel als Fabricenses, qui in Fabricis publicis [in den öffentlichen Waffenschmiedten] militant.

l)   Vielleicht perticari, gemeine Feldmesser, die sich der Meßstange (pertica) bedienten.

m)   Wahrscheinlich aquae, so daß es heißt: aquae libratores. =116=

(a)   Vitriari, ύελόϑϒοι.

(b)   Plumbari; die Griechen und die alten Manuscripte lesen: plumarii, Sticker. Gujac.

(c)   Specularii, σφετλοποιοι.

(d)   Diese bereiteten auch die Felle zu, welche über die Zelte gespannt wurden, unter denen die Soldaten Winterlager hielten.

(e)   Eigentlich bedeutet carpentum einen Prachtwagen; späterhin kommen aber auch carpenta stercoris vor.   S. Gesneri thes. h. v.   Nach Cujacius bedeutet hier carpenta σαϒματα των ϰαμηλων, Kameelsattel, clitellae camelorum; denn in Basilicis steht σαϒματοποιοι.   Allein, nach Festus heißt clitellae auch eins Art Geschoss.

(f)   An sunt albini, an gypsoplastae? de quibus Caasiod. V. v. 5.

(g)   Cujac. cusores linarii, των λιναϱιων ϰνηςαι, qui cudunt lina. Cod. G. cusores signarii.

(h)   Andere lesen: tignarii, Zimmerleute.

(i)   Noch werden hier in andern Handschriften erwähnt: intestinarii, Haus verzierer; [die Römer nannten den innern Schmuck der Häuser intestina; Vitruv. IV, 4; V, 2; VI, 3.] tessellarii, welche die getäfelte Arbeit in den Häusern fertigen; und andere. — Die Lesarten sind in diesen Stellen äußerst verschieden und noch immer sehr fehlhaft; ihre Berichtigung, welche ich für sehr möglich halte, würde die Absicht dieser Abhandlung überschreiten.

II.   The Emperors Constantine and Constans AA. to Leontius P.P. [See also Leontius of Jerusalem].
We urge through our present [letter] that the Fabri [artisans], ^k) Geometers and Architects =117= who preserve [the knowledge of] the collocation of all parts, and of all sections of the orders of columns, and of the disposition of dimensions, as well as by their directives are busy at the [erections of] buildings, and teach how to carry on through the levels water pipes from the found sources [aqueducts], ^l) [would] teach and learn with equal zeal.   Therefore, those who are capable of teaching [this art] may enjoy tax exemption and accept disciples.   Given on the 6th of July, in the year 344 AD, under the consulate of Leontius and Sallust

k)   It seems that among those who were favoured with [tax relief] were especially the Mechanics who, with their ingenuity and education, created mechanical organs, pumps and self-propelled machines Cujac. l. c. p. 237.

l)   Cod. Theod. The inventor of aqueducts and of the measures adopted thereof, as well as Cod. G. by, Cujac.   Perhaps: those who show the aqueducts and the methods that can be taught to elicit them with a leveling of the land. (Compare Pliny, Ep. 4. ult.)
*

In the ancient inscriptions there are mentioned by far several guilds, many of which are known only by name, and of which I will give what is most important afterwards.   Here are some remarks about the proper place of the architects.

The architects were of the noblest Roman families, and later, under the emperors, freed-men, especially Greeks.   Up to now I have not found any examples of the fact that several actual architects had formed a collegium or otherwise a corporation, but rather that they held honorary offices in the colleges of the carpenters, of weavers, of dendrophors, and others, and vested, for example, with the dignity of a patron. Originally, the architects lived as completely free beautiful artists, who under certain contracts undertook the management of public or private buildings; however, they also received specific employments at [the building of] temples, roads, aqueducts, ^a) =118= on the estates of private persons, in individual cities ^b) and in the imperial court. ^c)
  *

Related to the architects, but not to be confused with them, are the various types of measuring artists (Surveyors), especially the surveyors of buildings, of fortress or encampments, of fields, etc. ^d)   Also, in later times, the term machine expert (engineer ^e)) seems to have become synonymous with architect. ^f)

Moreover, in Roman Law are also found professionum primates, (chiefs and superiors of the trades), aliorum diversorum operum professores, έϱγοδιδασϰαλοι, (professors or teachers of other various works), and the redemptor [contractor, builder], έϱγολαβος [or εργολαβος], that is, the one who undertakes the construction for a specific contracted sum, is also distinguished from the architects. ^g) =119=

a)   Thus, there is (Reines, Ins. VI, 6) a fully preserved Roman Senatusconsultum of the year 743 AUC, wherein it is decreed: "— — To the Curators [officers invested with the care] of the extraurban aqueducts shall have two Lictors and three public servants, one architect and scribes and librarians, and as many magistrate's heralds and criers."

b)   Later on, Rome itself had a city master builder. (See below the passage from Cassiodorus Variae epistolae, c. XV!)

c)   See the indexes to Gruteri and Reines. Inscriptions, voce Architectus Caesaris, Augusti, Augustorum.   On the whole there are very few inscriptions on which the architect is thought of; nor do we have to confound the proper names Architectus and Architectianus (as in Gruter. XCIX, 9) with the professional designation of architect.   The most important inscriptions about Architects that I found are the following: Reines. XI. 22, 25; Grut. 41, 5. "templum Dianae — — d. d. Apuleius Architectus substruxit;" Grut. 57, 7. "Marti Aug. Sacr. C. Sevius Lupus Architectus. A. F. Damensis Lusitanus ex v. p. (Corumnae in Lusit.]"

d)   The term mensor extends beyond everything measurable, and thereunder is also understood the public taxators [tax-assessors] and the boundaries surveyors.

e)   Because a construction is also called machina, and the architects had to understand mechanical engineering.

f)   See below the passage from Procopius on the construction of the Church of St. Sophia!

g)   C. l. 4. t. 59. The builders of edifices, or even the contractors, and the teachers of other different works and the owners of baths, etc. Compare D. XI. t. 6, l. 7. §. 3. and D. VI. t. 1. l. 39!

Since, as we know from Vitruvius, ^a) the architects must have been well-versed in all sciences, and especially in Greek science and art, it is possible, and not unlikely, that until then they cooperated with the many building craftsmen who worked under their guidance, and whom they had to govern during the construction, to spread a noble, liberal mind, especially as they often enjoyed their honorable confidence as their honorary officials and patrons.

At least the nobility and higher dignity of the architects, which Vitruvius so beautifully pronounced in his writing, continued in the following centuries, and guided the steps of the Government in their regard, and to the treatment of the corporations under them.   This is proven, among others, by the following passages. — The Emperor Constantine writes to Leontius, as Provincial Procurator, "The architects who know and arrange the design, the division of all parts, and the individual members and ornaments of the orders of columns, and dedicate their work to architecture by means of measurements and designs shall enjoy the immunities (exemptions from all public state burdens), and those who are capable of teaching should accept disciples." ^b)   Also, [in the letter] to Felix, as proconsul [Governor] of Africa: "Architects are as many as possible, necessary, and your sublimity [your Excellency] should stimulate to this study young men of about 18 years who have previously laid ground in the liberal arts and sciences; and in order to make this appear to them pleasant, we want them, as well as their parents, to be free from all ordinary personal burdens of the state [free from taxation and other public services], but the learners themselves shall be given a decent salary." ^c) =120=

a)   See previous pages 76 - 90!

b)   See previous p. 117!  My translation of the word incisions is inferred from the context; because the other meanings do not fit.   Otherwise incisions means as much as incilia, moats (ab incidendo; vide Aquino vocabular. Architect. Rom. 1734. h. v.)

c)   There is work for the greatest number of architects, but since there are none in the African provinces, your sublimity shall urge into this art =120= those who are of at least eighteen years of age and have studied letters.   And in order to make this appear to them pleasant we want them and their parents who are related to them, be exempt from paying taxes, but we want the students they teach to be given a decent salary. (Cod. L. t. c.)

But the fact, that among all corporations, the building corporations and all the trades belonging to them, next to the corporations of the priests, in the capital, and throughout the empire, have been the most numerous and widespread, and at the same time the most respected, that would be inferred from the monumental works of civic, state, and warlike [military] architecture, whose description we read in the writings of historians, and whose relics are still captivating our admiration.   But this is irrefutable proved by the fact that of the inscriptions still existing about the collegia and corporations of all kinds, by far the most concern such collegia, which take an essential part in the buildings of all kinds, and especially those which make up the construction and decoration of large splendid buildings; — the very same Collegia or Corporations which in the Middle Ages we associated with the actual works of construction, under the direction of the architects, and, called by princes and other owners of building projects, we see them wandered there, where some great structure united them and gave them employment. — ^a)

The expression of the law cited earlier: "who dwell in the cities now and again" (morantes per civitates) and several other passages of the Corpus Juris, as well as of the historian of the Roman emperors, prove: that all the collegia and corporations belonging to the building profession had to travel from city to city, from province to province, on the orders of the emperors, as well as of construction-friendly private individuals of private households, and that, if they traveled and worked on imperial command, they would, by their multitude as by the legally prescribed deliveries to them of building materials and means of life, whereby they allowed themselves some extortions [not too-reasonable demands], ^b) =121= and by the forced journeys, (angariae) ^a) whereby they themselves and their equipment were worn out, and very many failed. ^b)   Soldiers also had to help with their work. ^c) Often the building corporations persisted in their guild laws, which often clashed with the interests of the state and of the building owners; this is why, we also find in the Codex many regulations against their guild misusages. ^d)

a)   See Section I, p. 93. ff!)

b)   C. L. XI. t. 9. de fabricensibus, [About the Craftsmen], start.   "All fabricis [by others: fabricensibus] construction workers are not to be given money in exchange for material [supplies in kind], but we order that the material be delivered to them without delay - so the possibility of defrauding is taken away, the public good is pursued.   Datum ao. 388." =121=

a)   Angariae are forced messengers and haulers, whereby all supplies were brought to the site of public building.

b)   Novell. XVII. c. 4; ib. 23, c. 3. Br.

c)   C. l. IV. t. LIX. med.   In this passage are expressly called builders, aedificiorum artifices, that is, all those active in the construction of houses.

d)   For example, that a master builder, having begun a work, must complete it (S.C.III.10.10, c.12, § 8.br; as well as the building laws of Emperors Leo and Zeno); that another master builder should and may complete an unfinished work; that a fraudulent master builder could be sued. (D, l. XI. tit. 6, c. 7, §. 3. "With this example we must also act against the architect who was wrong: so has decreed emperor Severus, promulgating actions against architects and contractors.")

The builders who had been appointed to build and maintain the bridges, aqueducts (Formarum), and fortresses were exceedingly numerous.   "A third class of people," says Berger ^e) in his work on the Roman roads, "which was used in the public road construction (muniendis viis publicis), were architects, wage laborers (architecti, operae, materiarii).   Because as the roads are connected by bridges, and are terminated with harbors, and for the convenience of resting places and stations (mansionum et mutationum) ^f) =122= many buildings have been erected, let alone milestones and other minor works, it follows that the greater part of the wage-laborers, stonemasons, (materiariorum,) builders and mechanics from all over the empire had to work on streets, which, if counted, would by far surpass the number of workers in the Solomonic Temple and the Egyptian pyramids.   Nor is it to be believed that bridges and ports were works of lesser value or labor, for even the port of Ostia built by Claudius, and only the bridge over the Danube, which Trajan had built, are equal to all the more splendid and audacious buildings."

e)   Bergerius de publicis et militaribus imp. Rom. viis; (in Graev. Thes, T. X. p. 36.)

f)   The general concept of the mansio militaris is a resting place set up by the army itself, for which purpose already existing cities were also used: it also means, standing quarters, resting place, armory depot.   ("The cities, camps and other residences be fortified at all times, not only in wartime, (Veget., I, 12 "Attacking the soldiers who slept in the mansion." Idem Confer. Du Cange sect. V.)   As a rule, there was a Mansio on the military roads after each day's journey; id. Salmas. to Solin. p. 994. — Mutationes are stations, that is, places where in transport and travel cars and draft animals were changed. V. du Cange h. voce!

Also, in every Roman legion there were continually employed several building trades, and all other corporations necessary for war, as both the Corpus Juris and the inscriptions prove. ^a)

A peculiar and extremely numerous class of workers and artists, which formed very widespread corporations, were employed in the numerous imperial armaments factories or arsenals throughout the empire, and were recognized under the common name of Fabricenses, ^b) although they were of very diverse trades.   They worked under the direction of the architects and in general [under] the machine-builders engineers (machinarii), were counted as members of the army, and enjoyed many civil and military privileges and immunities; whereas, on the other hand, under them the common laborers had to bear many burdens. They and the whole class of Fabricenses were under the command of the chief marshal.

a)   In his 19th historical account on the Roman Legions, le Beau puts together what is most remarkable about the artisans employed by the legions.   The main passages from the ancients are Livy I. 43 and Dionysius Halic. l. 4. on the decrees of King Servius in this regard; especially Vegetius l. 2 c. 11.   Le Beau cites several inscriptions, from which I impart only the words that pertain here.   C. Aneharius. C.L. Eutychus iron smiths of legion XX Geminae.   L. Ancharius. C.F. Philostorgus carpenters of war machines, Q. Ancharius. L.F. Nicostratus, smith and prefect of craftsmen legion XX. etc. (Reines. cl. VIII, 65.) — "Bassus Cohort III, legion III, italicae, military prefect, and roofer, d.i. (who clad and covered the walls"), (Graevius)   The praefectus fabrum occurs frequently, for example (Reines. Cl. VIII., 63.) M. Alcumius Aelianus praef. fabrum legion III. Parthicae. — L. Cornelius Balbus, whom Cicero defended, a very distinguished Roman, was under the consulship of Caesar praefectus fabrum. — Compare also several of the inscriptions cited in the course of our treatise, including the Brittonic ones to be mentioned in the end!

b)   Fabricenses is one who, as a soldier, serves in public constructions. (C. l. VI. tit. 62. § 5)   A separate heading in the Codex gives full information about it (C. 1, XI, § 9, compare l. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and Nov. Theod. 13), — The common laborers were marked with a brown mark, =123= so that they and their children could remain with the guild and return to it.

No less numerous were the craftsmen employed by the Marine Engineering and Shipbuilding sectors.   All the corporations belonging to them, of which we have already mentioned some, were among the most numerous, well-to-do, most respected, and most generally distributed throughout the Roman Empire. ^a) =124=

a)   See L. XIII. t. V. l. 9, 11, 14, 16, 21. and Platner, de collegiis opif. Lips. 1809. diss. II. p. 11. s., as well as Muratori, Reinesius and other writers about Inscriptions. — They were especially numerous and prosperous at Rome on the Tiber, and at Ostia(L: II, III, 1. 6, 10, 12, 14, 21, 24, 25, 30, 36, 37,38); but also well-established in the oriental kingdom (l. 7, 14, 32; v. paratit. Godofr.)   They could only consist of a certain number of individual colleges, and among them were accepted even men of the dignity of senators. (See l. 14)   But their service, like that of the weapon workers (fabricensium), was forced; for their sons and heirs, and even the owner of their property [real estate], had to take over the activity (see l. 3, 14, 19, 20, 27) and they themselves were not allowed to escape it (see l. 14, 19, 35).   They were under the authority of the Praefectus Urbi   They had to build and repair ships; and the subjects [citizens] had to contribute the building materials.   But most of all, as a regulation (see, l. 14. de an. Can.), they had to transport by ship over the seas and on rivers to Rome and Constantinople, from the provinces to the Romans, the annual deliveries of grain, wood, meat, and in general all property belonging to the Treasury of the States; but they had to justify to the Prefect of Grain Supplies their lawfulness and good life conduct.
They obtained privileges from several emperors, and the fifth law of Constantine in year 326 AD. reads as follows: "We command that all who have the management and care of a ship throughout the world, during their whole lifetime, of whatever duties and responsibilities, of whatever location or dignity they may be, be exempt from all obligations and taxes of any kind, be they decurions or plebeians or of any other better standing, so that freed from tax obligations can exercise the profession without injury to their assets."   I cite these instances here, primarily for the argument to refute as if all Colleges have been less honorable to the Romans, but then, in order to show that several collegia were really fit =124= to receive beautiful and meaningful customs and festivals through the participation of educated, scientific, and influential men, and thus to represent to some extent the place of the mysteries among the Romans.   That this happened especially in regard to the Shipbuilding corporations is proved by a great number of inscriptions, some of which are to be quoted below.   But these corporations also contained their own Fabros [smiths, craftsmen] of all kinds, but especially carpenters, weavers, and timber-cutters/bearers; therefore, they are in essential connection with our subject.

When an emperor intended [to build] any large edifice in any part of the vast empire, the architects and builders were prescribed from all the provinces, where they were to be found for this purpose.   The [cost of] carriages (angariae), their transportation, and the provision of all their essential needs on the journey and at their new abode, rested upon all those who were required to bear public state burdens.   This was a great burden for the lands [of the empire], especially under so many construction-craving emperors, for example under Nero, Hadrian, Diocletian, and Justinian.   One can see about this the already mentioned and still following passages from the Corpus Juris, from Eumenius, Symmachus, Procopius and others!   Thus, tells Lactantius of the Emperor Diocletian, who ruled from 284 to 304 AD: "Added to this was an unrestricted desire to build, and an equally unrestricted taxation of the provinces in the supply of workmen and artists, and carriages, and all things necessary for the construction of great works." ^a)   If the account of Procopius is only half-truthful, then no emperor did go so far as Justinian (who ruled from AD 527-566), who had built a great number of fortresses, aqueducts, bridges, and especially built the great St. Sophia church in Constantinople; this is why both artists, as well as building materials, and decorations, were sometimes brought by force from all parts of the empire, of which I will tell below what is pertinent here.

a)   "Added to this was a never-ending desire to build, a steady increase in tax collection by the provinces in showing off [magnificent] works, in order to pay for craftsmen and transport wagons and all that is necessary for construction works." (Lactantius M. P. 7. 8.)

Up to this point I have mostly followed Heineccius, by drawing from the above-mentioned writings the things pertinent here, =125= corrected, extended, and placed the passages cited by him, sometimes with the words of the sources, and increased with new ones.   But the very things which were of great importance to us for the elucidation of the origin, and the nature and meaning which the constitution and customs of the Masonic fraternity had primordially, must be most important to that writer, as well as those of lesser interest, to all other editors of this antiquarian subject; especially since the information about this are found very isolated and scattered in a crowd of writers and inscriptions.   Yet I found most evidence on these subjects in Wassenaer — dissertatio juridico philologica ad tit. D. de collegiis et corporibus, Lugduni Bat. 1740 (in Fellenbergii jurisprudentia antiqua, T. I, p. 397 seq). ^a)   It was therefore necessary for me to undertake a more accurate, possibly complete thorough research of all the resources available to me, but especially of the most important collections of inscriptions, and I undertook this work in order to arrive at a decisive judgment in regard to this important point, and in particular the York Constitution, but especially their assertion of being able to judge thoroughly that the fraternity had been established in England in accordance with ancient Roman and Greek constitutions, laws, and customs.
I will first give the main results of this research.   Should I have discussed much more in detail here than most people would like to see necessary, then a well-planned, exact compilation of all that we know from real sources will be welcome.   Many a single circumstance, some cited, may be a useful hint to later investigators and lead to further insight.   If, however, I have been lacking in some details of little consequence, for want of a deeper knowledge of antiquity, so I ask the experts for kind correction. ^b) =126=

a)   I will indicate this writing with Ws.

b)   In order to be able to quote in short form in what follows, I note here the meaning of the following abbreviations.   Gr. Gr. refers to Inscriptiones totius orbis Romani, in absolutum corpus redactae etc., industria et diligentia Iani Gruteri, denuo cura Jo. G. Graevii recensitae, Amstelod. 1707, 4 parts. Fol. — M. or Mur. refers to the New thesaurus of ancient Inscriptions hactusus praetermissarum, collectore by L. A. Muratori. Ti. IV. Mediolani 1739 - 1742. =126= Reines. indicates: Thomas Reinesius Syntagma Inscriptionum antiquarum, imprimis romae veteris, cum commentaris absolutissimis. Lips. et Franc. 1,682.   Fabretti inscriptionum antiquarum, Romae 1702, are designated by Fabr.   Further Gor. means Gori Inscriptiones antiquae in Etruriae urbibus extantes. T. III. Florent. 1726.   Mar. indicates: Marini Inscrizioni antiche delle ville de' Palazzi Albani in Roma 1785.

The constitution and institution of the guilds and artists' societies of the ancient peoples were in their peculiarity the result of the spirit of antiquity; they reflected in a single image the basic ideas of human conviviality, which at that time governed the states, as well as the religious associations and the household, and imitated in their further formation the destinies and changes of the states.   These societies were a state on a small scale, subordinated to the civic state and intimately connected with it.   The Romans very clearly named every social association a body, corpus, because to them, as to all the educated peoples of antiquity, and to the greatest philosophers, for example Plato, ^a) every society appeared as an independent man, under the image of the human body.   This genuine basic view had a very beneficial effect on the unity and consistency of all its social constitutions. ^b)   Thus calmed down, for example, the agitating people Menenius Agrippa ^c) by a clever allegory, which is based on the comparison of the state with a human body.   That is why the writers of antiquity often make use of peoples, states, and cities as pictorial expressions of birth and growth, of health or sickness, of dying, of rebirth. ^d)   Indeed Cicero ^e) compared the entire society of the whole human race with a human body; =127= and likewise said Seneca ^a): "we are members of a great body."   With equal success also Christian writers, especially Paul, ^b) make use of this similitude to the human body, when they speak of the mystical unity (de corpore mystic) of the church and of Jesus, as their head.

a)   See especially his Republic. (See my note on page 427 of the 1st volume.)

b)   See on this Edv. Platneri dispp. I et II. de collegiis opificum (Lips. 1809.) diss. I. p. 3. sqq.

c)   Livy. II, 32.

d)   To be born, to grow up, to be affected, good or bad, to die, to be born again, etc.   See Casaub. to Polyb. I. p. 90. sqq. Thus says Rutilius Namatianus "We do not judge what is unworthy to be freed from the body, let's look at the examples, cities can die;" and Statius Silv. 3, 5, 104: " — — the reborn Statina."

e)   Cicero de offic. 3, 6. =127=

a)   Seneca ep. 95.

b)   Letter to the Romans 12, 4. 8.   to the Corinthians 1, 12 - 27; especially the letter to the Ephesians 4, 16.

The jurists and philosophers of the Greeks and Romans usually count three types of bodies (corpora). ^c)   "The first, which is formed and sustained by one vital spirit, like a man, a timber, a stone, and the like, the second, which consists of several interconnected subparts and is called a body-structure, such as a building, a ship, a storehouse; the third, ^d) constitute the independent, similar individuals (heads), like a people, a legion, a flock."   Cujacius ^e) has already remarked that this tripartite division of the body has been taken from the Stoics, actually from Plato.

c)   Arg. l. 30. pr. D. Of usurpations, and l. 23. §. 5. D. of vindication.   "One body [collective noun], which is contained by a spirit and which in Greek is called ήνομενον [enòmenon], that is united, like man, building material, stone and the like: the second, that from contingencies, that is, from more cohesive elements, which is called συνημμενον [synémenon], ie. connected, like a building, a ship, a wardrobe: the third, which consists of separate main entities, like many independent bodies, but subjected to one name, such as people, legion, flock."

d)   Compare Hugo Grotius de jur B. et P. 2, 9, 3, the note!   In this sense corpus[body] occurs for example in Livy 1, 8; 4, 9; 26, 48.   Virgil. Aen., 12, 835.   Ovid Metam. 1, 186.   Lucan, 7, 291.   Florus1, 1, §. 9. et subinde; conf. Tennul ad Frontin. Strateg. 4, 2, 8 et Eins. ad Vell. Pat. 2, 109, §. 1.

e)   Cujacius obss. 15, 33, et 26. cap. ult.   See Seneca ep. 102!

The name Corpus, Corporations (body) is therefore quite general, and includes all societies of every kind, all Communities (universitates), Colleges and Confraternities (χεταιρειας, company). ^f) =128= That is why the section "de collegiis et corporibus" of the Corpus Juris mentioned above is not given the title de corporibus et collegiis.   Tertullian ^a) ascribes this designation also to the Christians, and at the same time even dismisses the accusation of agitating attitudes, which were made against them. Also in Lactantius ^b) is found the title: Corporation of Christians and "the law of their corporation" (corpus Christiamorum et jus corporis ipsorum) ^c).

Although some societies, according to their nature and foundation, were called a body, corpus, others an electoral society, collegium, still other congregation or community, universitas, yet we often find these three terms used without distinction; ^d) Corpus, however, shows consistently a most comprehensive meaning throughout, but the other two words actually indicate further definitions of that general concept. ^e)

f)   The assertion of Onofrio Panvinio, (Ant. Veron., I, 25.) that corpora, mean only the societies of the lower artisans and manual laborers, is utterly unfounded, as many passages appearing in what follows prove.   So we see, for example, the index to Gr. Gr. p. XL, where the most distinguished Collegia are called, =128= for example, Corpus fabrum, centonar, dendrophic, corpus nautarum splendidissimum.

a)   Tertullian Apologeticus. c. 39.

b)   Lactantius De Mortibus Persecutorum [scroll down to Chapter 48 (XLVIII.)]

c)   This passage confirms even more the assertion made earlier (see p. 109, and there the note d,) that the Christians made use of corporations and colleges in order to gain access to [the confidence of] the State.

d)   Compare among themselves the passages: I. 1. pr. §. 1. D. quod uniusc. univ. nomine; l. 6. §. 5. sed et qui. D. de decurion.; l. 3. §. 4. D. de bon. poss.; l. 5. §. 6 et 7. D. de jure immun. Ws.

e)   Namely a mutual contract seems to be pertinent to a collegium.   The collegia are also corpora [corporations], but not vice versa. — Thus, the libertini [freed-men] formed a corpus [a body] (Tacitus Ann. 13. 27.); for this reason, we also find corpus Aetolorum [Corporation of the people of Aetolia] (Livy. 26. 24): in both cases the designation of Collegium does not fit.   Ws.
*

The inscriptions teach that some associations of guilds did not call themselves collegia, but merely corpora, perhaps because they stood in a mere external connection, as in our case the so-called free artists and unprofessional trades.   Furthermore, as far as I have found, generally collegium [College] means a particular number of members of the same profession, legally gathering together in one house, in a particular constitution and under particular customs; =129= just such as Lodge denotes an individual association of free-Masonic brethren.   But if several colleges of the same or different kind, of the same place or of the same province, for particular purposes are united into a higher whole, as are several lodges united into a so-called grand lodge, then such a higher social whole is called either corpus [body] or corporatio [corporation]; and indeed, the latter word seems to have especially designated this higher relation.

The term college is indicative of the origin of this society; because it indicates an association whose members are admitted by free choice, ^a) or are connected by the same laws (leges).   This term was ancient among the Romans and very honorable; for even Romulus instututed two priestly colleges, the collegium Fratrum Arvalium ^b) already mentioned above (p. 105) and the college of the Titus Tatius fraternity. ^c)   A close examination of the Constitution fully set out by Marini's, internal and external rights, and the customs of the College of Fratrum Arvalium, makes it highly probable that it has served as a model to all the other colleges later instituted in the aforesaid matters.   The oldest such society was the priesthood or congregation of the Luperci (sodalitas Lupercorum), which was introduced by an Arcadian, Evander, before the edification of Rome in those parts. ^d)   It is certain, therefore, that the whole foundation, constitution, and institution =130= of the Roman colleges had been taken from the Greek priestly societies; and if we take the information previously provided (p. 105) about the institutions struck by Numa, then Fabretti, ^a) seems to have been guided by an idea which is at least pragmatically correct, that of having counted the religious societies among the Collegia.   By conferring the name and the constitution of the priestly colleges also to the craftsmen associated with the priesthood, Numa seems to have honored them by doing so, in order to cultivate a civilized change, and to wanting to commit them to it.   Incidentally, the craftsmen' colleges founded by Numa are only those required for warfare, for works of peace for the state, for religious services and folk festivals, and are to be found in the mentioned passage (p. 96 f.) as distinct from the religious colleges, and independently instituted.   When, at a later date, people of the lowest popular class, imitating the higher classes, gave their associations the name of Colleges, and were recognized by the state as such, in the case of their low profession being indispensable to the latter, or because it was a useful tool to the ruling party in the State; ^b) when, furthermore, slaves could be admitted to various colleges, with the permission of their masters: ^c) the dignity remained to the name of a Collegium until the end of the Roman Empire. ^d)

a)   They were appropriately called leagues, for connected and co-opted, because they were co-opted into the colleges.   Vell. Pat. 2, 83, 3.   Val. Max. 6, 4, ex. 1.   Sueton. Caes. 41; Aug. 2 et 54. Ws.

b)   See Pliny. h. n. 18, 2. compare Aul. Gell. noct. att. 6, 7; Macrob. Saturn. 1, 10. Ws.   Especially see Marini's extensive work on the Fratres Arvales (2nd quart), in which all detailed monuments of them and about them are represented and explained; from which one can fully recognize the whole inner and outer constitution of a Roman college.   The term brothers, fratres, in the collegium arvalium does not have a genaral human meaning, rather, its first members were natural brothers.   Generally, as far as I know so far, in pre-Christian monuments, the name Brother in a general human sense, cannot be found at all.

c)   "To the honor of the College of Titus Tatius Sabine." (Tac. h. 2. 95, 2. Conf. idem ann. I., 54. § 1.)   Ws.

d)   Dionysius Hal. I, 83. Ws.

a)   Fabr. 429. "I have divided the sacred class and its ministers into various colleges and associations in this class, because they were counted [by census] among the religious classes; as it is natural for those who shared the cult of the same god, who have a common treasury, sacrifices and meals in certain occasions."

b)   l. 5. §. 12. D de jure immun.   Ws.

c)   l. 3. §. 2. D. de coll. et corpp.   Ws.

d)   When Horace (Sat. I, 2) mentions the collegia of Syrian zither female players and mimes, and other low-ranking people (ambubajarum, etc. collegia), he seems to call them more mockingly so.   Ws.

Inasmuch as the members of a collegium are not and are not considered as individual members, but rather as a higher person, they are a community or universitas. ^e)   =131= Even older Roman writers use this naming for the whole of mankind all over the world. ^a)   According to Roman law, however, this name is already applicable to three people; indeed, even if only one [member] is left of a universitas, its [legal] rights rest upon him. ^b)   We see from this that the Romans had risen to the concept of a higher (so-called moral) person, indeed the highest on earth, that of Mankind, and that, therefore, the rights of the colleges, according to Roman state laws, rested upon their true foundation.

e)   I have already mentioned what is most relevant about this (in the note a) on p. 106).   Wassenaer believes that the term had come into Roman law by the translation of the Greek word ϰοινον, commune, and referred only to the common possession of property; he relies on §. 6. Instit. de rer. divis, and on Cicero de off. 1, 17.

a)   Cicero, of the nature of the Gods, 2, 56.   "It is allowed to gradually reduce the whole of humanity into increasingly narrower groups down to individual persons." — Pliny h. n. 7, 1.

b)   "In fact, in the discipline of law are communities certain bodies formed by individual units, at least three, joint together (different from the family and the State [?]) by mutual consent in order to benefit from the utility of common law and provided with public authority, and some, even if reduced to one, yet, sometimes, the necessary premises are said to perpetuate in l. 7. §. 2. D., for that individual."   Ws.

The several classifications of the widely-encompassing concept of a Collegium (see p. 105!), in the Roman law become now comprehensible.   They were public, (publica) which were instituted and maintained for what was in the best interest of the State itself, or non-public, private (privata), ^(c) which private individuals instituted for personal gain, or for the benefit of any profession or pleasure of their own accord, as a result of a particular social basic contract.   The public colleges are either religious (sacra sive religiosa), which are established for the purpose of the due exercise of the religious practices accepted by the state by those who are entitled to do so, for example, the collegia Pontificum, XV-Virorum, Septemvirum Epulonum, Saliorum, Lupercorum, Sodalium Titiorum, Fratrum Arvalium, Sodalium Augustalium, etc.; or civil (civilia), which are used for the individual parts of the state administration by the highest state power, for example, the Colleges of Consuls, of Praetors, of Censors, etc. =132= Corpus Senatus; ^a) in the rural cities the colleges of duumviri, quatuorvirum, sevirum augustalium, ordo decurionum etc.   The private colleges, too, were either religious, for the common worship of any deity, or civil and profane, for common trade and commerce, or for common enjoyment.
The private colleges are further divided into permitted and unauthorized (licita et illicita).   Permitted Colleges are "social associations of several, at least three, ^b) people who are apart from the State (republica) and the family, and under the authority of the state, ie. the laws, and are permitted and confirmed by senate decisions, or imperial ordinances. ^c)   These allowed colleges are also often called ancient and legitimate (antiqua et legitima). ^d) — Unauthorized colleges, on the other hand, (collegia illicita) differ from those permitted only in that they were not endowed with state authority, nor confirmed, perhaps even forbidden; therefore, they are called by the state not Colleges, but Complots (factions), illicit societies (illiciti coetus). ^e) =133= According to Ulpian, participation in unauthorized colleges was punished ^a) as a crime of lese-majesty, in former times with the exclusion of water and fire (aquae et ignis interdictione), ^b) later with death. ^c)   The prefect of the cities of Rome and Constantinople had to decide on this. ^d)

(c)     Only Titus' "of Colleges and Corporations" seems to deal with these.   Ws. =132=

a)   Lucan. 7, 294.   Ws.

b)   L. 85. D. de Verb. signif. I. 1. pr. D. that having a collective name.   Ws.

c)   Cujacius (ad 1. 40. D. de V. S.; conf. Bourdelot. apud Pricaeum in Apul. Apol. p. 49.) says that the reason why three are required is borrowed from the Pythagorean philosophy, according to which three is the fundamental number of the plurality, and two is the number of the minority.   Ws.

d)   Suet. Caes. 42; Cic. pro domo, c. 28.   About the decisions of the case made by the Senate.   Cic. Ad Qu. fr. 11. Ep. 3. Ascon. Ped. in Cic. orat. Pro Corn. p. 137, et in orat. contra L. Pis. p. 159. Conf. Plin. Paneg. c. 54; l. 1. pr. et §. 1. D. quod un. univ. nom.   Hence the formulas (already mentioned on page 111): "Colleges that allow others to join in; to which there is the right to associate;" for example, "The college of the shipbuilders of Ostia, to which (from Svetonio Caesar) it is possible to associate."   Mur. 520. 3. conf. l. 20. D. de reb. dub; l. 1. D. de manumiss. quae servis, et l. 5. § 12. D. de jure immun., where several such formulas occur.   Ws.

e)   L. 2. de extraord. crimin. arg. l. 1. pr. D. de coll. et corp.; the laws against them were compiled by Brisson (Select., Antiq., 1, 14).   They were also common in the provinces; see for example Tacitus Annal. 14, 17.   Ws.
At this point Wassenaer mentions also mixed Colleges [Fraternities] (collegia mixti generis), that is, partly permitted, partly unauthorized, =133= and includes therein, in the following words, also the Masonic brotherhood.   "Moreover, at the present time" [year 1740] "there are some of a mixed kind, that is to say partly licit and partly illicit, because they are forbidden by different institutions of the peoples of other countries, whereas elsewhere they are allowed and also accepted by public law.   Such is the very well known and of which everyone today speaks of: the Fraternity of free or liberal masons, which, incorporated in Britain and elsewhere by law and by customs, do not seem equally permitted in other regions of Europe.   Their origin and the institution, almost entirely beyond the memory of men, is usually celebrated publicly, but I do not say anything else, having nothing for certain."

a)   L. 2. D. de colleg. et corp.   Hn.

b)   L. 1. §. 1. D. ad L. Jul. de majest.   Hn.

c)   Paull. recept. sent. L. V. tit. 29. §. 1.   Hn.

d)   D. L. 1. tit. 12. c. 1. §. 14.   Hn.   Wassenaer deals with this item very thoroughly in 1. c. cap. VI. p. 439 - 445.

No one was allowed to be a member of several colleges at the same time. ^e)

Those who dissociated from a college received their deposit money back, ^f) and even the members of a college, abolished as unlawful, were allowed to share their common property among themselves. ^g)   Slaves could become members, ⁱ⁾ with the permission of their masters, in the lower colleges (collegia tenuiorum); ^h) but most slaves and freedmen of liberal upbringing and education were probably admitted in the nobler ones, for example, of priests, of poets, and many others. =134=   Soldiers were not allowed to be admitted into any college, ^a) especially in a lower one (coll. Tenuiorum). ^b)

e)   L. 1. §. 2. D. de coll. et Corp.   Hn.

f)   Ibidem.   Hn.

g)   L. 3. D. eodem.   Hn.

h)   Heineccius's conjecture that collegia tenuiorum means fewer colleges is unfounded; especially because of a passage in D. Lib. L. t. 6. c. 5. §. 9.   "the privileges granted to the [members of the] lower classes [due to their membership] among the various Colleges;" where the [members of the] lower classes are contrasted with those who, having greater economic resources, can perform public functions," therefore, by tenuiores can only be understood the members of the poorer classes.

i)   Gruter. Inser. p: 583, 1; Reines. Inscr. Cl. 11, 62.   Aringh. Rom. subt, l. 3. c. 37.p. 317.   Hn.=134=

a)   L. 1, pr. D. de coll. et corp.; L. 2. D. de extraord. crim.; L. 4. C. qui dare tut, vel curat.   Hn.

b)   L. 1. pr. Et §. 2. D. de coll. et corp.   Hn.

The internal constitution of the colleges, as well as the whole of their rights, was organized according to the model of the Roman state itself, ^c) and therefore agreed in all essential points with the constitution of the colonies and provincial towns, which followed the same pattern.   This would already be clear from the fact that most laws encompass all types of corporations and communities at the same time, and only add ancillary clauses for the particular kind.   The guilds were a faithful image of the Roman state and were instituted according to its likeness.   The unity of the Roman state also proved itself in the uniform internal social constitution of all colleges.   Even most peculiarities, and characteristics diverging from the civic colleges, may have been those in the public weapon factories (fabricis publicis) and those in the colleges instituted by each legion, employing various artists and artisans, which, though in many respects consistent with all the other colleges, nevertheless imitated military constitution, and were subject to military laws and officials.
To make these distinctions is not part of our purpose.
Since the Roman guilds flourished with the Roman state, and even exerted a considerable influence in its development, and shared its destinies and institutions, it is therefore necessary in itself, in regard to the constitution and individual institutions, to distinguish the times carefully; but this too goes beyond the present intent.
We have already mentioned (p. 106 ff.) the reasons why how so important must have been for the emperors the internal constitution of the colleges, but the proofs are already given by the numerous laws still existing on this subject, and by the information =135= of the historians about the endeavours of several emperors. ^a)

c)   L. 1. §. 1 D. quod uniusc. univ. nom., in connection with l. 10. §. 4. D. de in jus vocand.; l. 1. §. 4. de aedilit. Edict.; l. 4. § ult. D. ad Leg.: Jul, pecul. and to the whole Tit. C. de jur. Reip.   Ws.

a)   See here the passage from Lampridius about the Emperor Severus' institutions mentioned at (p. 141) also the passage (page 112) of the Tarunt. Paternus; also the laws of the Emperors Constantine, Leo, Zeno, mentioned by us; the concern of Trajan (Pliny, Ep. 10, 43).   Aurelius Victor says of the Emperor Hadrian: "Of his immense work, like that of one who has walked all the provinces at the head of the troops, restoring the city and strengthening the ranks.   And in fact he organized the master builders, the architects and all the builders who built walls or decorated them in the military legions, casting them into cohorts."

The most important right conferred by the state on colleges was, as we have already said (p. 102), the right to arbitrarily give themselves their own internal constitution, provided it did not violate any state law. ^b)

The members decided everything following the report by the officials, after customary consideration, and according to the majority of the votes. ^c)   In the same manner they also admitted new members, selected their officials, honorary members and patrons.   They possessed, according to the testimony of the Caius, a common estate, ^d) like every community (respublica, or unversitas), and a communal guild treasury ^e) or guild-coffers (res communes, arcamque commune), =136= which was recognized and protected by the state as the property of the whole college, not of any individual member. ^a)   In order to perform their liturgical practices, to pay for their priests and servants, to build and maintain their temples and meeting places, they required significant sums bequeathed to them by their patrons or by individual members, ^b) but mostly from their revenues, or that from the cities, ^c) or from the guild treasury.   Therefore, the richer members had to pay regular monthly contributions (Eranos), from which the poorer members received support and were buried. ^d)   That is why in the inscriptions so often are found the words: "from pooled money … (ex aere conlato …)."

b)   "These colleges could also emancipate slaves, receive delegates and make laws for themselves, to prevent being adversely affected by public laws, as Scaevola teaches in I. father to son D. of Legates 3, and Paulus in I. with Senate D. of the uncertain things."   See Antt. Rom. corpus Rosini, ed. Dempsteri, Genev. 1559. libro VIII, in annot. ad legen XII. tabb. de collegiis. p. 802. sq.

c)   These are learned already by the words, "by the suffrage of all and each one," in the resolutions of the colleges to be quoted soon. — However, in certain cases it seems that the (class) of the colleges' officials, as agents, to have made guild decisions; for example, "By decree of the order of the corporation of fishermen and divers of the whole valley of the river Tiber." (Gr. Gr. 391, 1.)

d)   See the other provisions on this, along with the evidence, in Wassenaer l. c. p. 426!

e)   That all colleges had the right of [possessing] a guild estate is doubtful, since it is mentioned in some inscriptions that this right has been granted to a particular college, especially by the emperors. Gr. Inscrions, p. 419, n. 7.   The term Arca [treasury chest] is said exclusively only of a private treasury, whereas fiscus and aerarium is said for the state treasury. =136=     Ascon. Paed. ad proëm. act. in Verr.   Ws.   By the way, in the inscriptions is mentioned the guild treasury of very many colleges, for example arca Augustalium, arca Pontificum etc.

a)   L. 6. §. 1. D. de divis. rer. et qualit. und l. 1. §. 7. D. de quaestionib. l. 7. §. 1. D. quod cujusc. univ. nom.   Ws.

b)   L. 4. D. de adm. Rer. Ad civit. Pert.

c)   qued Cic. ad Fam. 13, 11.

d)   Casaub. Ad Theophr. Char. cap. 15, especially Salm. in obss. ad jus Attic. et Rom. c. 1. et 2. Pliny ep. X, 93, 94; l. 1. pr. D. de coll.

An important right granted by the state to colleges was that they not only may freely choose their actual guild members, and admit them according to lawful customs, but were also allowed to choose patrons and other honorary officials from the most honored Roman families, but also to admit other people who did not at all practice their guild business as honorary members.
That the state really granted them this is evident from the fact that these circumstances are mentioned on many publicly issued inscriptions, and in yet other guild lists.   Thus, as it was already the case with the Roman guilds, we also find this practice in the medieval building corporations, which, in addition to the actual fellow craftsmen (Masons), admitted as members also non-masons (accepted Masons).

But since this right was often used to cover up political parties or forbidden religious societies, =137= the emperors, of course, sought to prevent and complicate the possibility that persons who were not actually practicing the craft of a college, could be admitted in such a college. ^a)
Also, at least with regard to some colleges, state laws determined the number of members of a single college. ^b)   As we know from the passages already quoted above (p. 112 ff.), the emperors also granted to those useful, indeed indispensable colleges, which assisted the state in the building industry, with the army, by arranging the deliveries of grain and meat, and so on, total or partial freedom from the state burdens (immunities).
But this immunity was bestowed only upon the actual artists and workers themselves; ^c) but not on patrons, =138= on priests or honorary members, or on persons otherwise admitted for any other purpose.
The closer time came to the downfall of the Western Roman Empire, the more privileges and immunities were given to the indispensable Colleges.   Thus they were granted the right of minority, which, by the way, also all other communities (universitates) had; and although in the beginning, as indeterminate persons, they could not inherit, ^a) for the first time emperor Marcus Aurelius allowed them the power to be set out as testamentary legatees; ^b) and Emperor Leo ^c) gave them unrestricted inheritance rights.   Hence, we find several inscriptions which gratefully mention the persons who had appointed a college as heir; ^d) as well as many monuments regarding individual donations made by members and non-members to the colleges for the purpose of regular annual funeral celebrations. ^e) =139=

a)   Thus Pliny assures Emperor Trajan, by requesting permission to establish a Collegium Fabrorum to quench the [Christian] conflagration, etc. (Ep. 10, 43. to Trajan) — — "You, O Lord, discern well if you think of setting up a craftsman college, up to 150 men.   I will take care not to allow anyone who is not a craftsman, and not to be employed in another job by the right granted, nor will it be difficult to monitor so few."

b)   L. 5. C. de commerc. et mercator.

c)   C. l. 10. t. 64. beginning. "The more they wish to become more experienced and to educate their children."   (See previous p. 114!) Compare C. Theod. de excus. artificum, and D. lib. 50, tit. 6., especially c. V. §. 3. sqq., of which this is the main passage. (§ 12.)
"Immunity is granted to such colleges or corporations, to which the right to associate is already given by law, that is, to those colleges or corporations in which a craftsman is admitted for his skills: such as is the college of the artisans, and provided it was instituted in order to dedicate its work necessary for the public good.   Immunity is not given to all members indistinctly, but only to the craftsmen.   And are not to be included people of any age, as it pleased the Emperor Pius, who approved men of advanced age or poor health.   Neither shall the college be constituted in ways different from those which increase the capacity and can support the obligations of the city with the privileges granted to the humblest, distributed among the colleges."   §. 13.   "Are accepted in the colleges that offer immunity, such as that of shipbuilders, those who have attained the honor of Decurion, undertaking to take public duties: and this seems to have been confirmed by a decree of Emperor Pertinax."
Already from this passage we would be justified in concluding that the Guilds had to have numerous, and indeed distinguished and wealthy, members who did not practice their trade.   From the above and the following we know that belonged there the patrons, the priests, and the honorary officers (honorati), =138= title which obtained especially, but not exclusively, the former officials of the colleges, if they had held the office of a Prefect or of a five-year Magistrate of colleges.   Gruter mentions several such honorati, especially a long list of them in the College Falbrorum Tignariorum p. CCLXVIII, I.   Reinesius, Synt. p. 605, gives the inscription: Epagatho Turanno Honorato Collegii Tignariorum Romaneinsium etc.   The expression: assunti and allecti corresponds exactly to the term accepted Masons.   (See Vol. 1. p. 456. and Vol. 2. p. 32, 51.) — The words: "si honorem decurionatus adgnoverint," seem to be understood as: "when he has taken up the honorary office of a decurion, that is, a councilor of a city, or of a colony;" for these Decuriones had to take over a lot of essential state services (munera), without which the internal and external legal constitution of the colonies and provincial towns could not exist.   In the construction of public walls, however, all the ordines, that is, every society recognized by the state, which had the rank of an estate, as well as all the inhabitants (incolae), had to make monetary contributions; and there was no immunity. L. 12. D. oper. publ. (8., 12.) Br.]

a)   Ulp. Fragm. Tit. 22. §. 5 sq.   Hn.

b)   L. 73. §. 1. D. de legat.   Hn.

c)   L. 12. C de hered. Inst.   Hn.

d)   Murator. Inscr. 516, 1. "Coll. Fabr. Sp. Atilio, qui rem suam coll. Reliquit." [Brixiae.] Grut. Gr. 427, 3. "Coll. Fabr. M. Iuvenio Magio, qui facultat. Colleg. Reliq."

e)   See the first inscriptions on the guild customs!

The colleges held their meetings in separate halls, or in their own houses.   They called these meeting places, Curia, in the manner of the town halls or meeting halls of the council members (decurialium) in the country cities, ^a) or Phretrium (or Phetrium, school or shrine).   Often they also had their seating [assembly] in adjacent chambers, or at least nearby the temples dedicated to the deities they especially worshiped, with whose priests they were associated, or by which they were hired as builders, or for the delivery of things needed for the Sacrifices. ^b)
They also set up their meeting places on country estates and on highways, probably because they had business there, or wanted to be unobserved and isolated. ^c)   But there are also found collegia who came together in private homes, ^d) and in other places. ^e) —
Most colleges had their own schools, (scholas,) ^f) =140= in which they actually taught the apprentices and the subordinate workers, but probably also they consulted with each other there about the work to be carried out, and its distribution, exactly corresponding to the lodges mentioned in the York Constitution and in the first and second Craftt documents (lodges, logia, collegia) of the building corporations.
And just as under the emperors the Romans in general strove for the appellation of imperiality [imperial] (Augustalitas), the schools of the most distinguished colleges also obtained the title and privileges of "imperial" schools.   These schools often served also as meeting places for them. — Since Collegium [college] always means only one particular guild society, such as our present lodges, the meeting place itself is sometimes called a collegium, and in the inscriptions it is often stated of a college where it assembled, so to distinguish it from any other.
In their Curiae, the guilds also kept their Archives (archivas, tabularia); ^a) they also carried their own seals (sigillas), ^b) and their own flags and shields (vexilla), which they used especially in their pompous public processions. ^c)

a)   "And I see in 10, 25 that there is a place, where they are allowed to congregate as colleges, called Curia, and in 1, p. 215 also called Phretium [meeting place], i.e., φϱητιον   in Greek.   Throughout the cities of Gaul, they still have in the temples private chambers for eating together: Mornatius, to Caius, of the monopolies."   Reines. from inscriptions "Curia of the College of the Salii."   Cicero, De Divin. 1. 17 "Curia of the dendrophors" Grut. Inscription 444, 2 compared to Falconer. from Inscr. Athlet. 117 ff.

b)   For example, the College of the Magistrates of divinity [priests], which is under the temple of the Emperor Claudius. Maffei M. V. 96, 5.   College of the giumentari [Charioteers], which is in the Cisiariis Tiburtini of Ercole — Fabretti c. II n. 179.

c)   "The most Holy College located in the estate of Larzio the Macedonian" Fabretti c. 6 n. 3 - "School and College of Silvano, which is between the 2nd and 3rd milestone from Rome on the Via Appia in the Curzio countryside of Giulia Monima's estates." Roman Anecdotes T. III p. 466.   "College of Aesculapius and Hygia which is on the Appian Way near the temple of Mars, between the 2nd and the 3rd milestones from Rome. Fabretti c, X, n. 443.

d)   "Collegio major and minor, who are in the house of Sergiae Paullina" Fabr. c. III n. 178.   Tacitus says (Annals L 1 c.73) of the worshippers of Augustus: "those that were in all the houses according to the customs of the Colleges."

e)   "College of the craftsmen of cushions and sandals, which exists in the school under the theater of Augustus Pompeius Magnus." Marini, the Arvali Brothers, obs. 7. T. 1

f)   Here are just a few examples of many!   "Sesto Ottavio Sex. F. Pal. Feliciano Senatore construction magistrate of the town hall.   Priest of Sacrifices for the honor bestowed upon him by the prefecture from the Colege of the Dendrofori school, having obtained the office from the order, he increased its prestige all at his expense." =140= Marini ancient inscriptions p. 24. n. 24. — "From the Senate Decree on the Imperial School "the Colleges of Carpenters, initially constituted at their own expense on the land given by T. Furio Primigenio, who donated 10 sesterces, amount that is given every year on August 12th, his birthday (Furii Primig.)."   Mur. 520, 6.

a)   Falconer, ad Inscr. Athlet. p. 51, 56, 118.   Ws.

b)   Seldenus to Marm. Arundel. p. 154.   Ws.

c)   Trebell. Pollio in Gaul. c. 8.

Since the Roman state granted the colleges true personality, own constitution, vested rights and place of assembly, so it had to grant them also their own jurisdiction for their internal affairs, and their own judges, and to grant them all the prerequisites and remedies, whereby every other community (respublica, or universitas) has been set as a separate indivisible person in constitutional relationship and connection to the state as a whole. ^d) =141=
This includes patrons, delegates (legati), administrators (agents), procurators (procuratores), prefects (präfecti, especially in the military colleges), etc., of which I want to cite what is necessary for our purpose, when I speak of the members and officials of the colleges.
The jurisdiction peculiar to the colleges, ^a) however, referred only to the internal legal social relations (jus sodalitium) of the members, and was especially necessary, because the state considered the whole college as a single legal person, so not to trouble itself about the single member, as such, and declared the whole college responsible for the offenses of each individual member. ^b)
That is why, following a state's laws, no member was allowed to elude the guild court. ^c)
By the way, under Association Law (jus sodalitium) is at the same time understood as the obligation deriving from a voluntary, reciprocal contract to help one another, such as children and brothers; a liability which the Greeks and Romans regarded as sacred, similar to that of the Hospitality law (jus hospitalitatis). ^d) =142=
Most likely, therefore, the guilds had a similar Constitution, or, as far as the individual regulations are concerned, Constitutions, as the York constitution was formed after them; and this dealt with the basic laws, the internal constitution, and the legal relations with the state and with the other associations.

d)   A more important question is whether the Roman state acted wisely.   "Would it not be indeed inelegant if we were to discuss this, =141= being able to move and agitate the question in both aspects, whether and to what extent it is appropriate to tolerate or suppress in this manner the class and the associations of citizens?   This subject has already been dealt extensively with in Bodinus de Rep. 3. 7."   Ws.

a)   Index coll. electus is found in Grut. 411, 2.

b)   See Mornacii obss. in 4 prior. Libros Cod. (Paris 1721) ad tit. 59 de monop.

c)   Alexander Severus seems to have determined exactly for the first time the relationships of the guild jurisdiction with the state and with the other existing courts of law, as the following words of Lampridius prove: "He instituted the corporations of everyone — — and ordered, what competency pertained to which judge."   The Association Law is expressly mentioned under the name Jus sodalitium, for example Justinian 20, 4; Ovid Tr. 4, 10, 40.   "often Propertius used to recite his verses of love, he who by right shared the same association with me."   At that time several poets had specifically united in Rome in the form of a college; Valerius Maximus 3, 7, 11.   The name Sodalitium stands often for College, for example, Cicero pro planc. c. 15, et. to Herennius IV, 51.   "Someone came into the Aedes [temple] on the same day in which the sodalitium (collegium) [fraternity] was to assemble."

d)   Cicero de orat. 2, 49. "for a friend of mine who, according to the custom of the ancients, had to be as dear as a son."   Iustinus (l. 20. c. 4.) mentions a sworn promise under the Law of Membership (sacraentum juris sodalitii); compare Gronovius Obs. IV. C.17. p. 282. sq. =142= The latter remarks that the first Christians have also joined together to love and help each other as brothers through such an sworn obligation (Pliny, l, 10, pp. 97.)   The generality of this use is proved by 1. 4. D. de colleg. et corp. —

Furthermore, the Colleges had the right to serve meals and celebrate games at shared expenses (stipem conferre, publice epulari, ludos celebrare). ^a)   The meals were usually held after the completion of the actual guild business and work, and combined with several liturgical activities, as well as on solemn occasions, such as, for example, at the consecration of the assembly places, at the foundation anniversary, at the birth and death days of their patrons and benefactors, or as a result of the obligations they had undertaken with testamentary legacies, to celebrate according to the customs of their Guild the birth, honoring and death days of the Legator. ^b)   This right gave the guilds the opportunity to publicly present themselves to the people as independent, free societies, and to come into social contact with all classes; it also became for them a considerable source of income, as they were given great gifts by non-members, who believed that they were not more solemnly honored and thought to be no more secure than when a distinguished College celebrated their birth and death anniversaries with solemn guild customs. —

a)   For example: "Mavorti T. Statilius. T. Lib. Taurinus Procurator bis coll. Dendroph. et Centon. signum aen. dedit et H-S. MM. N. … lud. divisit in Coll. … Decur. H - S. N. … Pleb. … (Romae.) Mur. 514, 3.   See also previous p. 99, note a!

b)   See the following section on the practices of the colleges!

When finally, because of the connection of these celebrations with pagan sacrificial practices, the colleges were deprived of the right to their worship, the Christian emperors allowed them these public repasts and festivities, perhaps from a purely human point of view, for the public happiness of the people, or else, because they did not dare suppress them. ^a) =143= Several individual guilds of the same, or even related, often of quite different, kind, became more or less close, lastingly, or temporarily, for various sociable purposes.   So we find for example the College of all Craftsmen. ^b)   Often all the construction trades are found together, and are associated with the dendrophori and navicularis [foresters and shipbuilders], and also with the legions, and indeed with the engineers. ^c)   Several colleges had convivial banquets, ^d) had common patrons, ^e) often the same patron, as the cities and colonies where they were. ^f)   They erected monuments in honor of their benefactors, patrons, as well as of the emperors, at a common expense. ^g) =144= They also united with the councilors and with the people of the Free Cities for the purpose mentioned. ^a)   Several colleges, that is, individually gathering societies, when they are formally united, are called corpus, or coll. Corporate or corporati. ^b)

*
a)   See the 11th title of the first book of the Codex, §. 4, already quoted at p. 111: "Just as we have banished the profane rites with a beneficial law, so we want the festive gatherings of the citizens and the manifestations of joy of all congregations to be preserved.   Once all sacrifice has been eliminated and every reprehensible superstition is abolished, popular feasts and the banquets, according to the ancient custom, when requested, shall be given official approval."   (Given in the year AD 399 by Arcadius and Honorius.)
D. l. 47. t. 22. of colleges and corporations.   "Marcian Book III, Institutiones: Because of order given by the superiors to the commanders of the provinces, it is forbidden the existence of all fraternal colleges, nor can the soldiers form colleges in the camps; but the poorest are allowed to make a monthly offer, only in order to meet once a month, without the pretext of being part of a prohibited college, not only in the city, but also in Italy and in the provinces."   "So has confirmed Emperor Severo. §. 1.   "But it is not forbidden to gather because of religion; provided that this does not break the decree [Senatus consultum] with which the unlawful Colleges have been banished."

b)   "Coll. omni. fabrorum." Mur. 516, 5. "Quinquennal. Colleg. Omni … fabrum."   Marir . p. 93. Gor. II, 93.

c)   "Coll. fabrorum et centonariorum."   Mur. 515, 6; 516, 4. 6. "Coll. balistariorum et ferrariorum."   Rein. X, 6. "L. Fil. Picatiae Collegia cent. et fabr." [Brixiae.]   Mur. 513. 4. "Coll. fabr. et tign. et dendroph." set up a monument together. (M ur. 520, 5.)

d)   See further down!

e)   For example, Mur. 517, 4; more on this following, when dealing with Patrons!

f)   Mur. 527, 4.

g)   Mur. 519, 2. — "L. Mussio Emiliano of the Lavinates IV. V. E. Prefect of Vehicles of the three provinces of Gallia: of Lyon, Narbonne and Aquitaine to S. S. LX Procurator of Alessandria e Pelusio A S.S.C. Praetor To S. S. C. Procurator of the ports and of both banks [of the river Tiber]"   "The carpenters, the shipbuilders and five corporations of seafarers dedicated to the irreprehensible man for the benevolence distinguished towards them and for the exceptional integrity of life." [Rome.] Mur. 514, 1.

a)   "To Caiuso Mutteio - - - Patron, Augustian quadrumvir, dedicate [this monument] the Colleges of sack makers and seafarers, the decurions and the urban plebs for its merits for the division of food." Mur. 520, 4; 27, 3.

b)   See previous p. 129! — For example, "Corpora Fabrum Ferrar. Tignar. Dendroph. et Centon. Gr. Gr. 261, 4.

Much more corporations, colleges, artists, and artisans are mentioned in the inscriptions than in the Corpus Juris, especially those contained in the passages on (p. 112 and p. 114. f.).   Of course, we hardly know the name of many of them; but from the most important ones, the priestly colleges, and all the building corporations, several becomes quite clear to whom carefully puts together the scattered comments from the inscriptions, and from the writers of the Romans and Greeks.   In order to give a brief idea of the multitude and diversity of the colleges that once belonged to the Romans, I list the names of some in the notes. ^c)

c)   The following are the most important Roman artists and colleges appertaining to the art of architecture, or who have been associated with the building corporations. — We find all the building corporations mentioned together in Symmachus (I X. 27)   "This one is an importer of woolly herds, the other brings the herd for the people's food; these hold the administration of pork meat: bring the parts to be cooked and wood to the lavers.   They are those who with feverish hands carry out an august work for others [compare. § 97 note e!] fortuitous fires are kept away.   Already it is pedantic to enumerate the inns and the ovens in service, the bearers of fruit and oil, and the many servants of the homeland of that kind."   As for the Architects, Onuphrius Panvinius' Collegia mentions them, without clear proof; I have found no trace of actual colleges of architects; but it is true that they formed schools around them and were publicly employed and salaried as teachers of their art until Justinian abolished all public salaries. =145= Procopius caused, without doubt, to search the Occident, northern Italy, Gaul, Spain etc. for many architects, as well as orators, philosophers, etc. — I have already cited (p. 118, c.) the individual passages of the Inscriptions where Architectus is found.   Perhaps two-thirds of the inscriptions, (accounting for the monuments of Fratrum Arvalium) in which colleges are mentioned, refer to Fabros, for which we have no word in German. [In English -smith or -worker, craftsman.]   (See p. 96, 6!) Coll. Fabrum, without apposition (Mur. 516, 1, 2, 3, 7, 517, 1 - 6, 518, 1, 520, 1, 517, 4) Coll. all craftsmen (ib 516, 5; Gor. II, 93) silversmiths, (Gr. Gr.) goldsmiths (ibid) ivory carvers (Gr. Gr., Fabr. p. 700; Reines. XI. 93, 94.)
Faber ferrarius [ironworker, blacksmith] (of legion XX, Reines. 8, 66 Gor. III, p. 85), marble-worker, sculptor, masons, bladesmiths, plumber or lead worker [especially for water pipes, and for lead projectiles, see Gor.. III. p. 30; Just Lipsius de milit. Rome.]   Gr. Gr. index; basket-weaver (Reines. XI, 27); bronzewrights, seal-makers (Reines. XI, 89) roof tiles or clay-tiles worker (Reines. l. c. Gr. Gr. 638, 6), containers-pots-vessels maker (Gr. Gr.; Reines. X, 20.), apothecaries (Reines. XI, 98) jeweler (ibid. 109.); worker with pearls (ib. 112.); opticians (Reines. XI, 66; Gr. Gr. 1, 646), bookkeeper (Reines. XI, 100.); College of shipbuilders (Gor. III. p. 85.) registrars (Mur. 530, 1.); College of bokeepers (Mur. 518, 5; 521, 5). Incidentally, Collegia Fabrum of all kinds of rural towns and colonies occur in all Roman provinces. Eg. Coll. Fabrium of Asti, of Praeneste, of Ostia etc. (Mur. 519, 3, 4.)   The Centonarii and Dendrophori were closely connected with the Fabris, eg. College of Carpenters. (Mur. 512, 2 - 5; 513, 1 - 6.); Coll. Fabrum et Cent. (Mur. 515, 6; 516, 4, 6)   Builder of walls (Reines. XI, 112; Spon.); Lumbersmith ["I would not dare elencare those who served handling material for the building" Spon.]   Geometers (Gr. Gr. 623, 8; 624, 2; Spon. p 225.)   College of engineers (Mur.523, 3); Corpus of urban geometers (Statut. Urb. Rom. L. 3. c. 42).   About these Mensores, as measuring artists and taxators of all kinds, see p. 118, note d above)! — College of Ballista and ironworkers (Reines. X, 6)   Coll. of pavement layers (Mur. 527, 6.); cooking potters and silversmith (Mur., 528, 1.).   Plasterers, earthenware workers, silversmiths, potters, merchants in copper and iron, and lime, and chest makers. (Vid. index ad Gr. Gr!) Coll. of sand suppliers (Mur.). wood planks makers. Fraternity of marble workers. (Gr. Gr. 624, 8) Coll. of wholesalers. (Mur.)
Some trades and guilds related to shipbuilding are: College of the sailors of the Verona region, including the river Adige (Mur. 526, 1.); sailors of [lake] Como (ib. 5, 6.); Coll. of shipwrights (Reines. X, 7.), Coll. of barge sailors of the river Tiber =146=, of sailors and of any other body of seafarers (Romae; Mur. 514, 1.); Coll. of Boatmen of small boats, Mur. 531, 4, 5) of Fishing boats and other boats (the same as small boats, Spon.); Coll. of the barge sailors of the Tiber. (Gr. Gr. 1086, 6.)
Colleges of different artists and craftsmen: Coll. of poets (Val. Max. 5, 7, 11.)   College flute and lute players of Rome, q. s. p. p. s. (i.e., which are available for the public ceremonies; Gr. Gr. 175, 10; Mur. 531, 1. Reines. p. 184); Coll. of coachmen (Charioteer and equestrian Reines. X, 12. Ferretti stone-muses sculptors, Spon. p. 65.) Coll. of goldsmiths (Gr. Gr. 638, 6); market vendors of wine, and college of wine wholesalers etc. (Mur. 521, 4.); coll. of Hunters (Mur. 531, 2.); of soap makers; (Mur. 523.)   of Roman Sagarii makers (Reines. X, 9.), of tanners (ibid. 8.), glaziers (Mur. 529, 6) Sutorum (ib. 7.), herders (Mur. 528, 2.), cattle ranchers (Mur. 225, 2) swine dealers, butchers (Reines p. 145. sq.) Coll. Saliginariorum (white bread bakers; Spon.); food tasters (freedmen, who tasted the food for the emperors, Mur. 528, 5); mixers (who stirred clay by foot with a kind of clay tool; Mur. 528, 6; 529, 1 - 3.); Spice-dealers (Mur. 4.).
Coll. Pontificum (Mur. 528, 4); Coll. of foresters (ib. 529, 5; Reines. et Gr. Gr. subinde); colleg. Augustalium (common everywhere.)   Coll. Aesculapius et Hygia (Fabr. X, n. 443.) coll. of the ruling deities (Maffei M. v. 96, 5) coll. of annals attendans (Mur.); of olive-press labourers) (who apportion oil to people, Mur. 512, 1; according to Reines. XI, 62. they are wine and oil pressers); Veterans College (Mur. 53: actually only called convivium); coll. Martensium, maybe also be Veteranorum); (Mur. 525, 1.); soldiers' college, (ib.4.) colleg. of German soldiers (; Romae, Mur. 523,4. 5.) coll. of Families descendant from Juliana (Freedmen in the service of the house of, etc. (ib); of Great College (Gr. Gr. 65,2; see p. 98 above); College Major and Minor, located in the house of Sergia etc. (Maffei M. v. 256, 4. Anecd, Rom, T, I, p. 476. n. 39, 40.)
The subsequently quoted citations contain still more colleges and trades.   The above are enough to assimilate the spread of the Roman colleges, especially of the building corporations.

I could have doubled this list twice, =145= and at the same time I could cite many not unimportant things about the occupations and the time of their origin and their maximum development, only if all this were pertinent here. =146=

Next, deserves our attention the membership of the Roman colleges, especially its various officials.   The list of the internal divisions of their membership, which are very similar to the lists of our of lodge, of which several have been well preserved, give the most vivid idea.   One of them is found in Muratori ^a) on two tables.   The directory introduces fifteen Patrons, of which calls the last Collegi Biselliarius, =147= because each held one of a double honorary seat (bisellium). ^a)   Then follow seven names with the heading: Decurions or 10-men, each of which were actually leaders of a unit (group) of ten or more members.   Then follows T. Flavius Proculus; Q. Albatius Corinthus, soothsayer/augur; L. Tettius Glycom, physician.   C. C. Julius Italicus. S. P. [permanent secretary]; C. Julius Matho, S. … (secretary); from which we can see that this college had a soothsayer (haruspex), a private doctor, a permanent and an asistant scribe (secretary).   Then there are two names with the title: Immune, that is to say, those free of the monthly contributions; but these are usually understood as priests of the guild. ^b)   Then follow undwer the title: Matronae [matrons], that is, honorary women, ^c) several women names; finally, some more male names, of which the last is called Biselliarius Dendrophororum, honorary member of the tree bearers.

A similar list is given by Gruter. ^a)   On the front side of a level marble base reads: "Imp. Caesari M. Aurel. Anton. Aug. - - - College of Carpenters."   On the other side are about 40 names; of which many under the title: Honorati, this is honorary members. ^e)   About the same number of names can be found on the left side, of which the last six are under the title: Scribae [secretary]; for every decuria, that is, each ten-member unit, probably had their master, secretary, and sometimes their special patron, and special fortune [treasury] through legacies. ^f)

a)   Mur.T. 1, p. 522.

a)   This honor was also customary in the council assemblies of the country towns and colonies; the same college often had several biselliarios that corresponded to our honorary members.   See Chimentellius de honore biselli, 1666; and the inscription Mur. 523, 1!

b)   See p. 149, below, note b!

c)   Honoratae, as they are called in other passages. See p. 148 below!

d)   Gr. Gr. p. 268, I.

e)   "Epagatho Turanno Honorato, College of Roman Carpenters." Reines. X, 13.

f)   See below about the officials!

All members, including officials, are called the number, numerus, ^a) population. ^b) =148= The individual members call themselves colleagues, incorporates, collegiate, the more distinguished and richer: first among colleagues. ^c)

All members excluding the officials and honorary members are called the people, the plebs, in the manner of the Roman state. ^a)

The Colleges especially honored the wives of their officials and distinguished members, which them, as well as those women who were honorarily admitted (allectae), ^e) understood under the title: honoratae [horored] or matronae [matrons], were cited as such in their lists, ^f) and built them honorary monuments. ^g)

a)   Stele dedicated to L. T. Proculeio, decurion of Mevaniola, Patron of the Craftsmen Colleges of Valcenna.   Glad of the honor, he refunded the expenses and dedicated to the statue the gifts [small money gifts] He gave to each college two denarii" Gr. Gr. 483, 7.   See the documents about the election of patrons at p. 159. f.   They were called numerus because a collegium could only have a certain number of members, according to Gori 300.

b)   "Donated to the College of Aesculapius and Hygia, in the place of the temple, the house with the pergola and the terrace, where the members of the said college shared the meals."   Spon. misc. er. ant, p. 53.

c)   "Called college of artisans and the centurions."   Mur. 515.6 — "Affiliate to the bagpipe players of Lyon."   Reines. XI, 26. — "From the Collegio degli Artigiani." Mur. 517, 1 — "For the trust of Gaius Petronius of the people of Marcellino, the best among the best members of the college of the sailors of Ardelica (Peschiera del Garda), to which College the pious Petronia for the most pious father endowed 2 sesterces, for solemn celebration of food, and roses for him and for his spouse." Gr. Gr. 449, 6.

d)   For example, Reines. X, 1. in a list of several colleges at Ostia. — Gr. Gr. 467, 1. "To C. Sentio etc. — With the money raised by the College of weavers, in honor of the duumvir for administering with zeal, he fulfilled all the wishes of the people."   But here can be meant the people of the whole city.   Compare several inscriptions below!

e)   See index Gr. Gr. Class. I, cap. 3. hac v.! — "To Giunia woman of exemplary virtue, elected by the order of priests in the college of Ercolano." Mur. 523, 6.

f)   See previous p. 147.

g)   — — — Mur. 513, 7.   "to Emilia, sister of the consul Emilio, his patroness, Emilia Prosecile because of the merits of Emilia, his mother Emilia Syntelia. The college of foresters dedicated at its expense."   Mur. 515, 1; ibid. 524, 1.

The indispensable persons of every college, who did not engage in its actual work, included the priests and their assistants (sacerdotes collegii, qui a sacris sunt, et eorum apparitores, =149= qui sacerdotibus apparent seu presto sunt).
These priests were servants of that deity which the college had chosen as the patron god, and at the same time received the donations regularly made to the patron god and to the genius of the college in their particular temples. ^a)
In addition, as the colleges exempted their officials and honorary members, or even poorer fellows, from the formal contributions of money, we also find that the priests of the colleges are mentioned in several passages under the designation of Immune [dispensed]. ^b)   In a similar manner, the Grand Lodge of England and Scotland has its own lodge Chaplain, ^c) who, in the public guild-like ceremonies of the brotherhood and at the burials of honored brothers in any church, holds a public, masonic religious, Christian dogmatic, lecture, many of which are available in print. ^d)

a)   "This token [donations] consecrated to Mars had fallen out of use and was restored by the College of Artisans of Ariccia, of very ancient age.   Lucio Lucillo Latino, procurator of the Republic of the Aricini, and Tito Sesto Maggio, priest of the same College, took care of it."   Spon. l. c. p. 58. "Lucius Tertenius Amantius priest of the College Lotorum — — — dedicated."   ibid.   The term qui a sacris sunt is found in Grut.. 29, 8; 121, 1; 632, 1. Compare Falconer. ad Inscrr. Athlet. p. 37. sq.; p. 49.   So mentions Apuleius Metam. XI, p. 205. "the highest, greatest, and chief priest of the college Pastophorum [food preparers, servers]."   See in Grut. 125, 1 an example of a collegial offering!   See in Mur. 521, 1 for a sacrifice for a dead person, offered by a Patron of college of Carpenters, conducted by the priest of the goddess Hecate!

b)   See Fabr. ad inscrr. p. 449!   There the inscription no. 48. says: "which immunity was given to those who dealt with sacred affairs."   Compare the list already cited from Mur., p. 522, which also mentions Immunes, and Mur. 518, 1 — — "protected by immunity, were welcomed into the college of craftsmen."   Poors were probably also allowed dispensation from the monthly contributions.

c)   As far as Lawrie's information goes, the Grand Lodge of Scotland availed itself of a Grand Chaplain for the first time in 1755 for the dedication of the Lodge's premises at Lanongate.   (See Lawrie's History, Freiberg 1810, p. 172)   From J. 1758 on this [Chaplain] received the seat and vote in the Grand Lodge. (Ibid., p. 174.)

d)   For example, Dodd's (Grand Chaplain of the Grand Lodge of the English Moderns in London) Oration at the Dedication of Freemason's Hall in London, 1776.   Compare this to Preston's Illustrations.

When the sole rule [autocracy] of an individual was established by Caesar in the Roman state, the Emperors, as well as the most respected members of their family, =150= were for the first time consecrated in honor in the temples of the gods, which their own priests venerated them especially.   This honor befell Caesar even during his lifetime. ^a)   The wife of Augustus, Livia, became priestess after her husband's death, ^b) and Agrippina was granted by the senate the honor of being a priestess of Claudius. ^c)   Soon similar public priests (Sacerdotes, or Flamines Augustales) were introduced at public and domestic services in Rome and throughout the provinces; ^d) and even some of the same priestly societies, in full form of colleges, ^e) (collegia Augustalium, or Sevirum Augustalium, or college Sodalium Augustalium) formed for the temples of the formally deified (by consecrating apotheosis) emperors in Rome and in all provinces and undoubtedly contributed much to the overthrow of paganism by this degradation of divine things.
Now, since all colleges had their priests, partly for the temples and for public sacrificial customs, and were closely watched by the emperors, they, too, had to accept several sacerdotes Augustales as their own officials (ordo Serviralis), and to worship the emperors as a deity, like all others other citizen.   That is why the Sodales Augustales, Seviri Augustales, or Augustales Collegii are so often mentioned in inscriptions. ^f) =151= They appear to have been elected sometimes annually, sometimes for five years, and sometimes for their lifetime. ^a)

a)   Suet. Caes. 76; Dio Cass. 44, p. 243. conf. Turneb. Advers. 7, 3.

b)   Vell. Paterc. 2, 75; Ovid ex Pont. 4, 9, 107.

c)   Tacit. Ann. 13, 2.

d)   "Order of six men [Sexviralis = college composed of six men, established in honor of Augustus] "craftmen college of sacks makers" Mur. 517, 4. Often the name Augustalitas among the colleges seems to have been a mere title; "In fact one will hardly find anything else, which men with greater effort, or more easily, have sought to obtained at that time, than the splendid name of an Augustian priest." Mur. ad. 129, 4.   Compare Reines. ad 1, 99. p. 132 - 138; Noris. im Cenotaph. Pisan. diss. l. c, 6. p. 118. ss.; Morisoni monumm. Regina diss. ill. (Neap. 1770) p. 342.   School Augustales, so they called their teaching and meeting houses, which they had built with imperial permission, for example "Augustalian School of Carpenters, financed by themselves." Mur. 520, 6.

e)   In turn, these Collegia had their patron, for example "Patronus Coll. Augustallium." Mur. 5.

f)   For example among the building colleges "Augustalis Fabr. tign. corp. Arelat." (Mur. 516, 8) See Gr. Gr. index h. v.

a)   "Titus Julius Tyrannus, perpetually immune — —"   [de anno urbis 861.]   Gr. Gr. 175, 10.

With regard to the officials who are found among the colleges, we must distinguish three kinds: state appointed officials, to whom the order, supervision and justice of the colleges were delegated by the supreme state; officials elected by the college itself, with the permission of the State, to have them represent the college in dealing with the State; and actual officials of the colleges themselves.

As far as the first class is concerned, various institutions of the state took place at different times.   Of all the staff employed in public and civil architecture, as we have already seen from the law of the twelve tablets, the original was that of the Aedilis; ^b) later in the provinces that of the Proconsul, ^c) and in general of anyone who ruled a province in the emperor's name (Praeses Provinciae). ^d) The supervisors, who decided only the laws of the artists and craftsmen, and of the colleges themselves among themselves, were probably, in turn, appointed by these, and by the way, every member had to submit to them, =152= even if it was subordinated to another jurisdiction, like a soldier, or because of high office, (ob cingulum, in connection with). ^a)   From which is reaffirmed that men of importance, like patrons, officials, entrepreneurs, and honorary members, joined up with the Colleges. ^b)

b)   About the Aediles see Pomp. Laetus de Magn. Rom. c. 20.   Floccus de Potest. Rom. l. 2. c. 13.   Onuphr. Panu. comment. im Fast. ad a. U. 261; Ros. Corp. Ant. Rom. l. 6. c. 24.

c)   According to Dig. L. I, T. 16, l. 7. §. 1. (Br.) the Proconsul has the duty: "to inspect the sacred temples and public works, to see that they are in good condition or covered by roof, or if they need repairs, and if these repairs have been started, he must take care that they are completed, the the extent as the public funds permit, and solemnly propose diligent curators of the works; and send the military to help the curators in case of need."   For a completely similar decree by Justinian see Novell. 17. c. 4. §. 1. sq.!   For what the sarta tecta [construction monitors] are, see D. 1. 7. t. 1. c. 7. §. 2 Dion. Gothofr. ad Varronem 1. 5. de ling. lat.; Cic. in Verr. 1. 1. (Br.)   The soldiers were used especially in the provinces, and, as attested by the above state law, throughout the Roman Empire, for the construction of roads, bridges, fortifications, and aqueducts.

d)   D. L, 1. tit. 18. de off. praes. c. 7. "The provincial governor, having inspected the buildings, and having known their conditions, shall obliges their owners to restore them and, shall bring against those who want to evade (this obligation) the means of an adequate remedy." Br. =152=

a)   Cod. l. III. tit. 13. c. 7.   "Therefore, we command; that neither the men of any jurisdiction, nor a soldier of whatever the militia or dignity shall be provided the prerogative [to avoid the decisions of the guild judge] in this respect." Br.

b)   Thus, in later times are found Comites formarum, i.e., high overseer over the aqueducts Fabretti 677, A.
*

The officials, which the state provided to the colleges specifically, are found at different times and in different places under different names, like procurators, prefects, defenders. ^c)   This includes all higher officials of the colleges in the armaments factories and legions, especially the prefects of these colleges, ^d) who, =153= like any official appointed to the guilds by the state, were usually very distinguished Romans.

Among all the officers which the colleges themselves inducted in order to find tolerance, protection and promotion by the state, the most important is the honorary office of patronus [patron] or protector.   Since we also rediscover this office among the oldest building corporations in England and Scotland, ^a) since, moreover, the Grand Masters of the English Moderns were probably, by the instruction of this office, and in its place, on the example of the spiritual Knightly Orders, ^b) created the office of Grandmaster, and now, in retrospect, substituted in older documents this latter designation for the name of a patron; ^c) so it is an essential part of this historical investigation to seek the origin of this office among the Roman colleges from the sources, and to prove its constant existence until the propagation of architecture to Britain.   The intelligent reader will hereby excuse the verbosity for the fact that without it it is not possible to make such a distant object vivid.

c)   For example, Procurator, who at times seems to have been a self-appointed administrator.   Heineccius says that these procurators had made a report to the College (ad collegium referre) of everything, as did the consuls to the Senate.   "Taurino, Prosecutor of the College of Foresters and Sack Manufacturers"   Spon. Misc. er. ant. Mur. 514, 3.   "M. Annio. M. F. Aufustiano procurator of the college of the Roman foresters (having held important positions) offered a banquet also to X. D. deities, in successive order."   Gor: III, p. 160. Praepositus corporum publicorum, l. 16. C. de Muril. Defensor collegii, Lampr.l. c.   Defensor Negotiatorum Apuliae Grut. 493, 2.   Among these are, according to Reinesius' opinion, perhaps also the corporate Leaders of Alexandria, which (l. 1. C. Theod. de Alex. pleb.) calls Arcadius und Honorius Curatores [defender] of the workers.

d)   A prefect of the legions was already introduced in Cicero's time.   Plut. in Pomp. de Theophane Lesbio; id. In Cicer.; Cic. Ad fam. 8. Ibid. 7.   This office is very common in inscriptions, for example "Gaius Julius — priest of Rome and Augustalian, near the altar placed at the river confluence, prefect [engineer] of the military camps, triumvir." (Gr. Gr. 235, 5.) "Military Tribune, Prefect of craftsmen, triumvir" Ibid. 341,3; item 357, 9; 371, 1; 428, 8; 1098, 5. "— — To the augur [diviner] interregi, military tribune of the 3rd legion of Augustus, of the 10th twin legion, cavalry prefect, prefect of encampments, prefect of the corps of engineers, his wife Oppia dedicated." ib. 491. Q. Caesio Curat. oper. publicor. dato a Divo. Vesp., Aed., Aed., IIVir. Praef. Fabr." ib. 1092, 4. "To Gneo Giulio Pertinace, questor of buildings, prefect of encampments." ib. 1095, 10." [Dedicated] by L. Ancario to the sacred memory of the divine M. Caio Ancario, C. L. Eutico, blacksmiths of the 20th Legion, L. Ancharius. — — carpenters of war machines. Q. Ancharius — — smith and prefect of smiths of the 20th Legion did in lieu of donation." Reines. VIII, 66. A very distinguished prefect of weavers is found in Gor. III. p. 91. =153=   The overseer of the craft is called leader of the craft. C. lib. XI tit. 9.

a)   See Vol. 1. p. 590, note c) to the 1st - 3rd statutes; Vol. 2! p. 18, the note a).

b)   See Vol. 1. p. 538; and the Book of Constitutions of Lodge Archimedes of Altenburg, p. 128. f.!

c)   See Vol. 2. p. 18!   Also in Scotland in 1736 the last patron was the first Grand Master.   Lawrie p. 134 ff.
*

Already when Rome was founded, the heads of the most distinguished families called themselves the fathers, the pater familias-head, patricians (patres, patricios), which served as a model for the Roman state, like a single family, and thus set themselves in contrast with the less respectable, poorer families, which were understood under the name of populace (plebs).   The patricians undertook, in return for essential services, the obligation to protect the people, and indeed each and every one of the people, and to guarantee him his rights.   The Knights, Equites, made a middle class between the patricians and the people.   Therefore, every Roman of the people class, =154= every plebeian, if he really wanted to enjoy his civil rights, had to choose a patrician, or at least an Equites, as his paternal protector, (patron).   Hence it was necessary that every association consisting of plebeians, as a higher legal entity, in order to be recognized by the state, had to choose a patron from the patricians or from the equites.   This was essential to all the colleges of craftsmen and artisans, especially later in the provincial towns, since they consisted mostly of poorer plebeians, which, because of their influence on the majority vote in the popular assemblies, in the Senate, and later, because of their numerous secretive meetings, for that very reason the emperors, saw them with jealousy.   But not only the colleges, but also all the corporations and communities, all rural towns, colonies, and even whole provinces, according to the Roman Constitution needed a patron.   According to the old popular tradition, the army commanders became patrons of the cities, provinces, and nations which they had conquered, and in some way had brought into a covenant of submission with the Roman state.^a)

a)   Cicero de Offic. I, 11.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus describes the mutual relations of colonial and municipal cities, and of entire provinces. ^b)   To Patrons were chosen Romans of high birth, of exquisite fame in war and peace, who held the highest honorary offices ^c) and were of special influence, =155= whether they lived in the capital or abroad; but we often find, as patrons, the municipal officials and the state servants living in the provinces, as well as noble citizens of the provincial towns. ^a)   All the wellbeing, honor and possession, were recommended to them for protection and defense. ^b)   They pursued the more important affairs of their protégés (clients) with the senates and the emperors, and had to praise and show their loyalty to the state and the emperors. ^c)   The colleges consulted their patrons in important cases, and did nothing of significance without their authority. ^d)   Therefore, the faraway cities and colleges often sent special Curators to Rome, who then conducted their affairs through the patron.   The senate often left the disputes of cities and peoples ^e) to their patrons, and confirmed their decisions. ^f)
Those residing in faraway places established with their patrons a formal reciprocal contract of hospitality (per tesseram hospitalem), =156= in which this relation was often stipulated immediately for the heirs, ^(a) which were then called patroni ab origine, or original patrons.
At times even children have been chosen as patrons.^(b) One and the same person could be patron of several provinces, cities and colleges at the same time. ^(c)   The colleges and cities had to show their patrons all the evidence of filial devotion, and therefore called them fathers, and parents of their society.
And since they also chose women of high birth and great influence, especially from the imperial family, as Patronesses (patronae), so for the same reason they were called mothers of the society. ^(d) =157=

b)   Dion. Hal. The Roman Antiquities L.II.

c)   For example, "To Lucio Fascelio, son of Caio, a Sabine, procurator of the divine Antonino Pio Augusto, four times proconsul of the Lower Panonia, 20th Heir, Duumvir, quinquennial patron of the colony, excellent patron of the college of sack makers [weavers] and vested with rare honor, the place [spot of land, location of the monument] has been given by decree of the decurions." [Arimini) Mur. 513, 2. "To Caio Astricio of Clusio, "public" knight, quinquennial quadrumvir, prefect of the first cohort, praetor … of the Illyrians and the Mauritans, tribune of the 3rd cohort of Ulpio and lieutenant of Antonino pontiff the 2nd, triunviro of the quinquennial triunvirate, [donated by] Flaminio Diale, patron of the college of weavers." Mur. 512, 2.   Therefore one and the same man often had to undertake the patronage of several colleges, cities, provinces; e.g. [Gor. I, p. 308] mentions a tombstone, to Cn. Sentius, decurions of Ostia, patron of more than 20 corporations, all named, among them is found Dendrophori and grain cereals distributors.   Often the colleges chose the patron of the rural towns where they lived; e. g. "To Giulio Augurino of Civitella d'Arne, patron of the city and of the municipality of Flavius Arvense youth school of the forestry college, =155= having fulfilled all the honors and burdens of his city, lover of youth, the place was given by decree of the decurions."   Marini Inscr. Alb. p. 49.   An Aediles curulis as Patron of the craftsmen college, Mur. 521, 5. "To Lucio Antestio, son of Lucio of the tribe of Arne, Sabino, public equestrian, duumvir, five times patron of the college of craftsmen, title so used, [monument erected according to testament]" [he really used that name as an honorary title] "gave as a gift bread and wine to every one of the 412, divided by grade" [according to the stages sitting in the theater?] divisis."   Mur. 516, 2. — "To Lucius Betuzius son of Lucio palatine Fyrniano prefect of the 1st Italian legion, duumvir Juno Regina, triumvir, architect of the curia of priests of the divine Nerva, colonial patron of the college of artisans, lover of the homeland, the place was given by decree of the decurions.   (Rimini;)   Mur. 516, 3. — "To Lucius Gabonio Arunculeio, to Valeriano V. T. eq. R. priest … having covered all the main positions, ancestor of the fatherland, senator, curator of his own things and patron for his merits."   Mur. Valerius Polycarpus, — — Murcio Valerio Policarpo - patron of the 7th roman neighborhood, and also of the college of weavers and foresters of Rimini — — likewise patron of the college of weavers and foresters and shipbuilders, and vice-magistrate of the colonies." Gr. Gr. 481, 9. onf. ibid. 409, 8; 1093, 3.

a)   Gr. Gr. 409. "C. Firmio. — Dec. Flam. Patrono Collegior. Fabr. cent. dendr. Feltriae itemque Bervens. Coll. Fabr. Altinatium Patrono.

b)   Therefore, they are also called defenders of the Republic. (Grut. p. 455, 2.)

c)   Grut.. 443, 6; 445, 4. Spon. Misc. p. 124.

d)   Grut.. p. 361. "by Patron's authority."

e)   That the Plebs also had their patrons follows from Claudian in consul. Theodorii; Grut. 474. 3; 1098, 1

f)   Dion. Halic. L. c. =156=

(a)   The following is an example of such a tessera: "To our most noble lords Crispo and Costantino jr. Caessit. (?) Coss (?) III, not ... from ... By the order of the municipality of Diditani tightened bonds of hospitality and friendship with Q. Aradio Valerio Proculus, an illustrious man, and chose him, his sons and descendants as its patron.
Quinto Aradio Valerio Proculus, an illustrious man, Governor of the province, tightened ties of hospitality and friendship with the order of the Diditans and commanded his sons and descendants to welcome in their trust and clientele also their children and their descendants."   Gorius II. p. 189.   In this work there is a thorough essay on the patrons of the Romans, from which I give here the most important, together with my own remarks.

(b)   See examples in Gorius p. 201!

(c)   Gor. l. c.

(d)   In the inscriptions we find the patrons and other deserving persons called Faters, Parents, Brothers of colleges; e.g. Fabretti X, 443; Mur. 126, 1; 522, 1; 564, 1.   Baluzio Misc. T. IV. p. 147.   Likewise, the gentlewoman are called Mother, Matroness, Daughters, Sisters of the colleges; Fabr. 1. c. Gor. Inscr. Etr. T. II, p. 209; Mur. 522, 1; Mem. des Inscr. et bell. lettr. T. XXIII., . 405; Marini Inscr. Alb. p. 60; idem de Frati Arvali T. I, p. 94, 6.   If they chose a person from the imperial house as patron, they venerated him as a deity; thus e.g. (Gor., l. c.) Their patron Caius Caesar, whom they held every year a death celebration "with general mourning." — contrary to Ferretus, Wassenaer finds it doubtful that women were Patronesses, (Mus. lapidariae, p. 187.); but it is fully proven from several inscriptions, e.g., Grut. 443, 6.   See Phil. a Tourre in comment. ad Inscr. M Aquili c. II. p. 153, Mur. 524, 1!   Also the council assembly of the Decurions in the country cities =157= called their elders, like the Romans their senators, their fathers and parents (Gor., II, p. 193), even ancestors, (e.g. L. Gab. Arunculeio — — — ancestor of the country — — Mur. l. c.)

When it was to be decided the election of a patron, the college had to gather in proper numbers; the most distinguished officials had to praise the merits of the future patron; the members then decided, by a majority of votes, what to do in this case, and tentatively produced a certificate of their choice ^a); then they elected the most distinguished members, sometimes the entire list of the college officials (ordinem), as deputies (delegates, or advocacy curators), who appealed to the chosen patron and requested that he take the whole college into the protection of his house (in clientelam domus suae recipere,) and would like to allow him, and his descendants, to be formally elected patron.
If the patronage was accepted (make use of the honor), the decree, in the form of a contract of hospitality (tesserae hospitalis), was written on a brazen plaque, [placed] in a public place, in the market, in a temple, or in a basilica ^b) but then solemnly delivered to the patron himself in his house, ^c) and set up by the latter there as a Plaque of Hospitality, so that, as a result, the delegates of the college could enjoy the hospitality.
Subsequently, the patrons were awarded new public honors; their portraits of marble or bronze [sculptures], on foot or on horseback, were inaugurated and exhibited in a public place, on the markets, in temples, basilicas and theaters. ^d) =158= The pedestals of these portraits were filled with panegyrical inscriptions. ^a)
The patrons responded to this demonstration of honor by donating money, oil, wine, and the like to the colleges at the inauguration of their statues, reimbursing expenses, offering them food, games, and pleasure hunts. ^b)

a)   Such a certificate is mentioned by Tacitus l. 2. hist. 54, 65; Pliny X. epp. 14, 54, 121.

b)   See proofs and examples in Gorius l. c.!   Some Greek tablets of the kind begin with the words άγαϑή τυχή, but the Latin ones with Auspiciously!, oder b. b., that is: bene! bene! an.

c)   the costs incurred as a consequence were usually compensated by the patron, therefore the formula: the expenses remitted. E.g., Gr. Gr. 393.

d)   This honor befell Cicero from the people of Capua, Cic. contra Pis. 19.   Compare Pliny h. n. 304, c. 6.   Senec. VI. de benef. 8; 1. ult. C. de statuis et imaginibus! — "Aquil. ob insignem ejus erga se lagitionem et liberalitatem suffrag. univers, ex aere c. coll. Fabr. Patron. dignise, =158= I. d. d. d." Mur. 518, 6. "Coll. Fab. et Cent. statuam aurat. ponend. honore contentus." (Aquilejae.) Mur. 518, 3. "M. Metello. … coll. Dendroph. Carseolan. Patrono ob merito ejus." Mur. 515, 2.

a)   The administrating officers, the high birth, the special services to their clients are praised there; the Patrons are called: "Excellent, most outstanding, most indulgent, beneficent, worthy, most worthy, admirable, most noble, rarest, most innocent."

b)   "In the public exultation, and also in expression of gratitude, once the donations, the distributions, the dinners, the banquets and the sportulae (money distributions) were done, the games made, the patrons, happy with the honor, refunded the expenses."   For example, "[monument] To Sesto Petronio Valerio, son of Sesto, a quattuorvir devoted to law, sevir [member of a six-man body] of the augustial college of Antina, the College of Foresters with the funds raised erected [the monument had been requested by testament] to the meritorious patron."   For which dedication he gave each decurion epulantes [10-man college of priest in charge of public banquets to honor the goods] 8 sesterces; "To every dining augustial sevir 22 sesterces; to each [member] of the aforementioned College 15 sesterces; for the banquet of the urban plebs 4 sesterzi to everyone." [in the city of Marsi, formerly Antina;]   Mur. 515, 3. "[Monument] to Quinto Giunio son of Quinto of the veteran Oufentina tribe of Septimius Severus Augustus, having accepted the serious mission of quaestor of the stronghold of Ascoli, patron of the college of weavers and foresters, peacefully liberated Tivoli, excellent patron, for the dedication of his statue he offered a dinner and gave 8 coins to each decurion and divided 12 coins among the people. Place donated at his own expense."   Gr. Gr. (427, 1.) "[Monument] to Tullio Fundilio Gemello, sevir Augustalian magistrate, while living perpetual patron of the Augustalians for excellent merit.   Here in the ark [treasury] of the Augustalians, while living, he gave 20 sesterces so that on the days of his birthday, February 4, the present banquet be held at his expense, and for the inauguration of his statue he gave to the decurions and to the seviris and to young sportsmen and to the people food and oil that same day." — Gr. Gr. 414, 2.   A monument dedicated to several people at the same time concludes: "The Weavers college accepted the honor upon the remittance of the expenses and undertook the tutelage of this place."   Gr. Gr. p. 393. "[Monument] to Mario Luperciano of the Voturia tribe, public Equestrian for honorary augury, expert of the municipality, elected judge, priest of Cenina, Patron of the college of weavers and foresters of Bergamo, whose exemplary liberality after many donations shone to such an extent that, at his own expense, having paid the funeral tax for the benefit of his fellow citizens, they thought of rewarding his so great merits as to celebrate his effigy in perpetual veneration.   Place donated at his own expense." — Gr. Gr. 456, 5. — "To Marcus Aurelius Crestus for the honor of the patronage of the artisan school of Puglia for the development of gables." [That is, the magnificence of the pediment or form of the roof of the house of the Gods own shrines.] =159=   Reines. II, 17.   At times the colleges united with the councilors and the people of the provincial towns to erect honorary pillars to their benefactors and common patrons; e.g. Mur. 27, 3; 520, 4.   Often also several different Colleges, e.g. Mur. 514, 1, 520, 5.

Only then were those =159= inscriptions inscribed in the bases (in basibus) in the officially decreed form. ^a)   The patron was probably ^b) greeted once a year by deputies; and his wife and children in a manner similar to the patron himself even after his death, ^c) and grave monuments and annual funerals were dedicated to him. ^d)
There are many similar decretals on bronze and marble plaques which have been obtained by patronage of cities and of individual colleges, as well as several inscriptions on pedestals of effigies of the patrons.
Since these documents not only explain this subject, but also prove several circumstances mentioned about the constitution of the colleges, I add some of them in the notes.^e)

a)   Grut. 444, 2.

b)   Gor. l. c.

c)   Gor. ibid.

d)   See the inscription of the note d, p. 156!

e)   A) "At the time of the emperor Caesar Marco Aurelio Antonino Augusto Pio Felice Viminio, in Petronio Settimiano Cosiano" [Cosa was an ancient Etruscan city. There are remains of it near Orbetello.] "on April 10th in the temple of the artisan colleges of the sack weavers of Reggio, what Paolo Senio Marcellino and Caio Aufidio said in the dialogue with the Quaestors: It is appropriate to co-opt as a patron of our College Jussilio Giuliano a generous man of modest and secluded life, so that the testimonial may be an example to others of our opinion of him. Q. f. p. d. e. r. i. c." [What should be done regarding that matter.]   "They [Quaestors] thought that they liked the proposal, and so it was done.   With such a favorable report to the Quaestors we all, individually and as a group, feel that such an honest report has been made and therefore justifying for this delayed recognition of Giuliano as an honest man, we asked him to willingly accept the honor of becoming patron of our college and we decided that an epigraph bearing this decree should be placed over his house."   (Gr. Gr. 1101, 1.)

B) "To P. Cornelio Secolare II and to C. Junio Donato II at Cosa on December 4th."
"In the Town Hall of Ostra, being present the college of sack weavers with its transcription school and there, as L. Vessidio Fortunato QQ. relates with everyone's consent, the following words were dictated:"
We know how much love and how much munificence our M. Careno Vibiano ha shown in life, therefore it is impossible to try to adequately remunerate his affection for good works, =160= but with an extraordinary and commendable unanimous vote it was decided, as for Corezio Vittorino, pertinent to his kind and to his honors, to thank him with a gift and to demonstrate with public testimony to have chosen him as patron and therefore, with everyone's agreement, we will give him an epigraph to testify to him our affection. They thought that they liked it and so they did."
We were pleased that an epigraph was offered to our patron Corezio Vittorino with the words of our decree, redacted by Vessidio Fortunato, QQ.; obliged thereto: the legates Cornelius III. of Quintus, Publius Massiminus, Aurelio Ursinus, Valerio Giusto, Cocceo Mercuriale, Antistio Massimo, Ottavio Clemente, Petronius Felice, Vessidio Filoquirino, Ottavio Fauro, Satreno Supero, Vesido Verecondo, Stazio Fausto."

C) P. Cornelio Secolare II. and Giunio Donato, at Cosa, July 1st.
"In Sentinum, numerous members of the college of Sentinian artisans gathered in the school, there being a quorum, and reporting C. Giulio Marziale and C. Cassidio Rufino QQ., who had always been splendid in the past and that he therefore worked for the benefit of individuals and of those who were worthy of being pointed out as an example, and above all for the honor and dignity of Memmia Vittorina, daughter of Mother Femina Mamoria, directly in our ranks, and that her name were placed in her house, so that all the members of the family were called to be part of the patrons of our college and they all appeared in the group, and since Carelio Fusco was a shining example of filial piety of maternal devotion, it seemed appropriate to offer an epigraph to all.   They thought that they would liked it, and so they did.
q. f. p. d. e. r. i. c. c.
"The relationship between the man of value and our College was glorious.   And therefore being Cornelius Fusco born of a high-ranking family, so that he may better understand the reason for our honorificence, and it is thus necessary, to offer an epigraph that mentions his titles, and ask him to deign to accept this gift of ours with a willing mind, and consent to do so; proposed by: Nerazio Ampliato, Orpio Vestate, Emilio Vittore, Bebidio Giusto, Cassidio Marziale, Giulio Marziale, Cassidio Rufino, Bebidio Gianuario, Etrio Romano, Cassidio Ementino, Etrio Verna, Vassideno Favor, Casideo Giustissimo, Satrio Verecondo, Stazio Veloce, Veturio Celerino, and also by those who worthily will be added.

Incidentally, inn this the colleges mimicked exactly =160= the towns and colonies which did just that, and from which similar decrees and inscriptions have been preserved. ^a)   The patrons were usually elected for life, sometimes also for only five years. ^b)
Apart from the patrons of the corporations, =161= in the inscriptions there are also found patrons of almost all important guilds. ^a)   Sometimes they also chose their own distinguished members and officials as patrons. ^b)   Later on, a ranking took place among the patrons of the same collegium. ^c)

a)   Gor l. c. p. 189 and 193.

b)   "Quinquennial Patron of coll. dendrophori" Reines. I, 283.

a)   E.g. The patron of the college of bakers, Mur. 527, 5. The patron of the college of mirror manufacturers, ib. 529, 6; 526, 3; 529, 6.   Patron of the College of pork meat sellers [swine dealers], butchers and bakers, Gr. Gr. 561, n. 1. 2, 3.   Patron of the College of the Augustalians, Mur. 5. Prefect and Patron of Craftsmen [college]. Grut. 12, 8.

b)   "To Lucio son of Papirio Valente decurion of the colony of Sarmizegetusa, Aedile and quinquennial duumvir at Elba and Questor, Prefect of the artisan college and their Patron." [In Transsylvania.] Commentary on Lazio Reip. Rom. L. XII. c. 4. p. 899. "Prefect and Patron of the colleges of sacks manufacturers and Weavers." Gr. Gr. 36, II.   "To Decio Giunio son of Decio Papirio Januario prefect and patron and quinquennial duumvir of the college of carpenters of Elba" — — Mur. 521. 1.

c)   "Patron of the bakers'College" Reines. II, 361 and "Priores de Patronis" l. 7. C. Theod. de Pistor. et Catabol.

When pagan worship was abolished, this habit of electing patrons, along with all the customs mentioned, was still preserved; it were then chosen not only living patrons, but also deceased persons, who were pious in life, ^d) whom the church had later on canonized.
And so the Masonic fraternity also received indirectly from the building colleges of the Romans its double patrons: the secular ^e) with the involvement of the state, and the spiritual: St. John. ^f)

In addition to the patrons, we find several officials, which the colleges themselves chosed, but with the approval of the state, in order to avail themselves of their assistance in its relations with the state.   Here belongs to example the procurator ^g) and the curator, administrator, ^h) and the advocate =162= or agent, ^a) whom, like any community, they also needed to secure their property, to accept inheritances, etc.   This includes the lawyers (defenders), which Severus allowed the colleges to choose from among their midst. ^b)

d)   Gor. 1. c. p. 199.

e)   See p. 153, a, b, c.!

f)   See Vol. I. p. 331. ff.!

g)   See the evidence points p. . . . n. .

h)   Any person legally authorized to execute a legal will, e.g., who had undertaken the annual funeral celebrations according to the instruction of a will.   ("In fact I will set up the curators who, on my birthday, will enjoy the income of these gardens and will offer roses perpetually, and I don't want them to be divided or sold." Gr. Gr. 636, 12.)   About the Curators see l. 3. §. 2. Law on colleges and corporations, in connection with l. 2. §. 4. et 6; l. 3. §. 1, 3; l. 9. §. 2, Decree on the administration of public assets =162= Compare Grut. 354, I; Reines. VI, 123, 131.   Fabretti 449, 59 Falconer. ad Inscrr. Athl. 17, 24. — "To the curators, third year, College of artisans and centonari [rag dealers] of Caria "" [of the year 842 AUC.]   Reines. p. 28. "To the curators of the College of Carpenters of Ostia."   Mur. 521, 4. "Tiziense architect curator of the college of artisans and centonari of the year 151." — "To the 3 curators architects of the centonari college of Caria for the year 137."

a)   In the passage of the Dig. cited at p. 106 it is said: "and he may act as advocate or agent, in relation to the affairs of the state."   Probably this Syndicus is sometimes called a Magistrate of the Community, as can be seen from the comparison of the following passages: l. 9. and l. 1. §. I. et l. 6. §. 3. D. quod uniusc. univ. nom. und l. 57. D. de V. S. (Wassenaer l. c. p. 429. s)   Is actually called Actor [Attorney] one who is an authorized representative for a special affair. (Ws. ibid.) Comp. Schulting enar. Pand. ad tit, quod euj. un.

b)   See previous p. 141. Note 2.!

Finally, in view of their own officials, the colleges imitated the Roman state as faithfully as possible, as did the rural cities; ^c) the names of these officials are therefore borrowed mostly from the Roman state, or at least from the municipal constitution of the cities.

Just as the municipalities called their senate Ordo, so did the colleges also named their officials, if they wished to designate them as one whole. ^d)   In the municipalities, the duumvirs held =163= the same office as the Consuls in Rome.   The colleges also put similar pairs of men at their head, which, since they were generally chosen for 5 years to 5 years, they are called quinquennial duumvirs. ^a)   But the colleges, which were employed in the works of the state, with the legions, or in the weapon factories, had one Superior (Prefect, Provost). ^b)   In later times there are also found Consul of the Craft, and annual Duumvirs and College Administrator. ^c)   The senior officials mentioned in the list were called Elders (seniors), the remaining Juniors (young masters). ^d)   They appointed a Quaestor ^e) as overseers of their customs, and as treasurer; and in later times also a Censor, as overseer of the moral conduct of members and officials. ^f) They also had Scribes (scribas, secretaries) and Archivists (tabularios); ^g) also own doctors (medicos); ^h) several serving brother [Stewards], as collectors of monthly contributions (eranistas) ⁱ⁾ and servants (viatores), ^k) as actual slaves, (servos collegii) ^(a)   =164= which they could make freed at will; finally also flag bearers, and carriers of the statues of the deity, which the association particularly venered (signiferos or vexilliferos).^(b) — One and the same member held several guild offices at the same time. ^(c)

c)   "Like those effigies and the simulacra of the Roman people, of which also the form of the State and the institutions, are imitated, whenever this is allowed." Gell. 1.- Noct. Att. 16, 13.

d)   Order of Municipalities, l. 3. et 6. § 1. Abstract, of any denomination, Grut. 126. 391, 6. order of the corporations of fishermen and divers, Grut. p. 391, I. Reines. X, I. "From the decree of the organization of the corporation of the Fishermen," Gr. Gr. 391, I.   Sometimes the Colleges of Augustales are also called Order.   A complete decree had to be drawn up by the officials and all the individual members (popular decree, that is made by the corporation and all the members); For example, a completely preserved decree of the most respectable Forestry corporation made in the curia of the Basilica of Ammiano in Grut. p. 444, 2.   It is written in the manner of a senatus consultation; Month, Day, Consul, and the names of all present persons are included. =163=

a)   "Quinquennial duumvirs of the Foresters Corporation." Gr. 494, 8. Reines. I, 8, 99, 105, 254, 261. "IIvir. quinq. Col. Fab. Freteal." Mur. 518, I.

b)   Praefectus. See previous p. 152, note d.! Gr. 12, 8; 36, II; 45, 8. Provosts of public corporation, l. 16. C. de Murileg.